dawson city
Stake Your Claim
welcome to DAWSON CITY
Dawson City, Yukon is the heart of the world-famous Klondike Gold Rush.
On August 16, 1896, three Yukon “Sourdoughs”: George Carmack, Dawson Charlie, and Skookum Jim found gold on Rabbit Creek (now Bonanza Creek) a tributary of the Klondike River. Word of this find quickly spread to the about 1000 prospectors, miners, Northwest Mounted Police, missionaries and others who called the Yukon home at the time. Settlements were quickly abandoned as a rush to stake the best ground commenced.
Two of these residents were Joe Ladue and Arthur Harper who had been trading in the Yukon for years. They were quick to purchase, stake and establish the town site of Dawson (named for Canadian Geologist George Mercer Dawson) at the confluence of the Yukon and Klondike Rivers, about twenty kilometers from Discovery Claim.
From 1896-1899 $29 million in gold was pulled from the ground around Dawson City. Dawson became known as the “Paris of the North”: The largest city west of Winnipeg and north of Seattle. Overnight millionaires roamed the streets seeking ways to spend their riches. The best food, drink and clothing were all available for purchase, at a high cost. Dance and gambling halls, bars, brothels, restaurants and supply stores all made fortunes “mining the miners”.
Population = 1,375
Dawson City serves as the Cyber Sled Race: Mine for Gold checkpoint: Stake Your Claim. Below you will find information and challenges related to mining for gold and other minerals.
The content below is for participants of all ages, unless otherwise noted. Utilize your connected worksheets and tracking tools to find the specific information for your rank.
EXPLORE MORE ABOUT mining
Mining is the removal of materials from the earth that are valuable in creating products and services that people find useful. Miners have a saying: "If it can't be grown, it has to be mined." Look around your room. Notice everything that was made from something grown, like wood or cotton. Now look at all the things in the room that were not grown, such as plaster, glass, and metallic objects. These were made from minerals that were mined from the earth. Yet even the things that were grown required equipment for their planting, cultivation, and harvesting this equipment was made from minerals.
earth's mineral wealth
Mining is the removal of materials from the earth that are valuable in creating products and services that people find useful. Miners have a saying: "If it can't be grown, it has to be mined." Look around your room. Notice everything that was made from something grown, like wood or cotton. Now look at all the things in the room that were not grown, such as plaster, glass, and metallic objects. These were made from minerals that were mined from the earth. Yet even the things that were grown required equipment for their planting, cultivation, and harvesting this equipment was made from minerals.
How important is mining to society? From communications, transportation, power, construction, agriculture, and medicine to education, entertainment, and recreation, every aspect of society relies on mining. Whether it's a car, computer, surgeon's scalpel, smartphone, television, goalpost, or almost any other object you can name, the materials for making it (or for making the machines that produce it) must come from a mine.
Rapid communications, information technologies, and the ability to store,
retrieve, and transmit data for education, industry, and recreation—such as
video games and music downloads—are important to us. Mining provides
the raw materials for all the hardware for these conveniences. For example,
a car has about 34 minerals and metals, and a smart phone requires 30
minerals and metals—all were extracted from the earth.
Mining produces coal for generating electricity, and as a raw material for
many industrial processes. Uranium for nuclear power is also mined. Even
the devices needed to harness solar and wind energy are made from
minerals that come from mining.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MINING
In geology, a mineral is a naturally occurring crystalline substance with its
own chemical formula and its own distinctive physical properties. A rock
may be made up of one or more minerals.
In mining, the term mineral has a wider meaning. It refers to all the substances that are extracted from the earth for human use. Mined minerals are classified as metallic, energy, or industrial.
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Metallic elements and compounds conduct heat and electricity, are ductile (can be drawn or stretched into wire), malleable (can be hammered into sheets), and shiny. Examples are copper, aluminum, iron, and zinc.
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Energy minerals supply electrical and mechanical power by their combustion. They can also be used as a feed stock (raw materials) for liquid transportation fuels and coke, which is used to make steel. Fossil fuels, such as coal, are energy minerals, and so is uranium, which provides power by the heat from radioactive decay.
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Industrial minerals are neither metals nor fuels, but are mined because we use them every day: in construction, in manufacturing, and even in the food we eat. Examples include clay, sand, limestone, gypsum, and pumice.
Your home is built of mineral products that were mined. Are the outside walls of your home or apartment made of brick, stone, or aluminum siding? All had to come from a mine at one stage or another. In a typical home, the inside walls are wall-board made of gypsum. The foundation is concrete with crushed stone in it, and the roofing shingles contain fine crushed stone. Windows are made by combining silica sand, dolomite or limestone, and soda ash. Appliances are made mostly of metals. Paint has mineral pigments. Except for wood doors and window frames, wood framing, and the like, most of your home and everything in it came from mines and quarries.
The power to heat and cool homes and to run entertainment and communications devices comes from minerals such as coal and uranium. Electricity generated from energy minerals is transmitted long distances on metal wires—aluminum and copper. Minerals are essential for affordable and convenient electricity on which we depend. Transportation depends on the products of mining. Bicycles, automobiles, trucks, ships, and airplanes are made from minerals. Highways and airport runways are made of quarried crushed stone bonded with asphalt or cement—all minerals.
Even things we think of as organic (grown) depend on mining. For example, paper made mostly from wood pulp may have limestone or kaolin (fine white clay) as a mineral filler or coating. Wood products and food crops are grown using fertilizers that are mined: phosphorous (phosphate), potassium (potash), and magnesium (dolomite). The manufacture of farm equipment for cultivating and harvesting crops also depends on the mining industry. Farm machinery is made mostly of steel (made from iron and carbon), with copper for wires, aluminum in engine blocks and wheels, lead in batteries, and chrome for trim.
At mealtimes, you use all sorts of minerals. You eat with metals-stainless steel utensils. You cook with power from energy minerals. You eat off ceramic dishes, and drink from glass containers—made from industrial minerals.
What's In Your Phone?
Producing a typical smartphone calls for the following metals and elements found in minerals: aluminum, antimony, beryllium, cadmium, carbon, chromium, cobalt, copper, gallium, gold, indium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, manganese, mercury, neodymium, nickel, nitrogen, oxygen, palladium, platinum, silicon, silver, tantalum, tin, tungsten, vanadium, zinc.
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Minerals in a Bicycle
minerals in human history
People have depended on Earth's mineral wealth throughout history. Periods of human civilization are named for these materials—the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. In prehistoric times, humans made stone tools and weapons: arrowheads, spear points, knives, axes, and hammers, among other objects. People adorned themselves with necklaces, rings, and amulets made of stone, and they shaped clay into pots and other containers.
Metals such as copper, gold, and silver, found on or near the surface of the ground, were first used as decoration. Gold was easily noticed in streambeds because of its bright yellow color. It was easy to pound and stretch into desired shapes, often as jewelry and as objects of art and worship.
For early humans, copper served many practical purposes: tools, weapons, jewelry, and decoration. Although copper is brittle in its native state, people learned to make it more workable by heating it in a fire annealing). Heating also melted the copper out of the rocks that contained the metal—a process known as smelting.
Early metalworkers discovered bronze by smelting together rocks that contained both copper and tin. Bronze is harder, less brittle, and more durable than copper, tools and weapons of bronze were better able to maintain a sharp cutting edge. The Bronze Age was named for the metal; its properties made it so significant in human history.
With technological advances came the Iron Age, when iron and steel became extensively used, especially for cutting tools. Smelted iron was hammered into the desired shape to make steel swords and other weapons and tools.
In ancient Rome, soldiers carried steel swords, and they were sometimes paid with another mineral: salt. In fact, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt, salarium. It was important to Romans as a food preservative and seasoning. The Romans built roads to make it easier to ship salt into the city. For instance, the Via Salaria, a road between the Adriatic Sea and Rome, made the delivery of highly valued sea salt faster and easier.
As important as salt was to the ancient Romans, an even more valuable mineral-gold-helped to shape the history of North America. It sparked mass migrations of people in search of their fortunes. After gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill, California, in 1848, more than 300.000 people traveled to California over the next seven years. Known as the Forty-Niners, the newcomers came by land and sea, helping to settle the western United States.
The Klondike Gold Rush
The Klondike Gold Rush of 1896-1899 brought more than 100.000 gold seekers to Alaska on their way to the Yukon region of northwest Canada. The harsh conditions stopped many, but then in 1899 gold was discovered in Nome, Alaska, triggering another mad dash by gold prospectors.
Gold was not the only valuable metal found in the American West. When silver was discovered in the Comstock Lode in 1859, Virginia City, Nevada, became a bustling boomtown almost overnight. San Francisco, California, grew into a major financial center because its banks funded the mining. Comstock Lode silver helped finance the Union in the Civil War (1861-1865).
Because legal battles were waged over claims ownership, the U.S. Congress in 1866 passed the first law to govern how Americans could prospect and mine on federal public lands. Then in 1872, Congress passed the General Mining Act, which is still in effect today.
One Miner's Story: John W. Mackay
John William Mackay (1831–1902) was born in Dublin, Ireland. His immigrant parents came to New York in 1840. As a 20-year-old, Mackay made his way west, hoping to strike it rich with the rest of the Forty-Niners during the California Gold Rush. He didn't find much gold, but in 1873 he struck the Big Bonanza, one of the greatest silver veins ever found. In just four years, the Big Bonanza mine in Nevada produced over $400 million in silver. As senior partner, Mackay kept the largest share for himself. When the silver played out in 1877, he and his partners moved to San Francisco as millionaires.
Mackay was a great philanthropist. He donated generously to the Nevada School of Mines, originally established in 1888 and renamed The Mackay School of Mines to honor its benefactor. Today the school is called the Mackay School of Earth Sciences at the University of Nevada, Reno. The school has graduated generations of mining professionals who have worked throughout the world.
In what other ways have minerals influenced history? Consider this more recent example. In the 1920s and 30s, the Empire of Japan sought to conquer its Asian neighbors. Japan needed iron and petroleum, which it did not have in large amounts. China and Southeast Asia, however, were rich in these mineral resources. To stop Japan's aggression, the United States cut off shipments of iron and steel along with oil exports to Japan Japan considered this an act of war, and on Dec. 7. 1941, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Navy battleship fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Japan's surprise attack brought the United States into World War II.
There are many steps in finding the mineral resource; planning, constructing, and operating the mine. Then closing the mine after the resource is removed.
WHERE TO FIND MINERALS
Click on the map above or this link to access an INTERACTIVE map of mines in the United States
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral Resources Data System catalogs information about mineral resources around the United States and the world. Using the map tool, users can zoom in to obtain reports and data on past and present mines, mine prospects, and processing plants. Only 2.5 of every 1,000 acres in North America are occupied by mines. From this small area come all the minerals we use.
Mining in Society Merit Badge Tip
For requirement #2, use the map above to mark the locations of 5 mining enterprises in your area. Then look up what resource is being processed at each location.
Or simply google "Mining Enterprises in ____________ (your state or area) to find a better map. For example, click this link for mines in Ohio.
MAJOR SOURCES AND USES OF MINERALS
The following charts list minerals, their major sources, and their main uses. Note how many mineral resources are mostly or entirely mined outside of the United States.
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
METALS
ENERGY MINERALS
EXPLORING FOR MINERALS
In mining, exploration is the search for a useful mineral that can be extracted from Earth's crust. When you think of exploration, you might imagine an old-time prospector with his trusty mule. With his pick and shovel, off he would go in search of something valuable. One common method of exploration was to find a place that had geology similar to a known ore deposit. For example, in 1849 in California, prospectors who knew that gold could be found in some streams would pan for gold there.
Panning is a method of separating gold from other particles. Small amounts of gravel and sediment from the streambed are put in the pan. The pan's contents are swirled gently, allowing lighter materials to wash out of the pan. Heavier particles fall to the pan's bottom. Any gold will remain in the bottom of the pan.
The prospector would follow the gold upstream, panning every so often, seeking the "mother lode," or major ore deposit. When he stopped finding gold in the sediments, he would backtrack to locate where the gold was entering the stream, narrowing his search. Traditionally, once found, a miner would shout, “Eureka!"-Greek for, "I found it!"
MODERN EXPLORATION METHODS
Many old methods are still used, but today's "professional prospectors" have more high-tech ways of locating the right geological conditions for the kind of deposit being sought. Modern-day specialists include geologists, geochemists, mining engineers, metallurgists (experts in metals), and logistics specialists (experts in handling the details of an exploration venture).
In their planning, exploration teams often use remote-sensing. Satellites collect and process
data using different detection methods from photography to multispectral scanning. Some
methods that use laser technology even allow scientists to see through" trees and vegetation
to the ground beneath.
Because we can't see below Earth's surface to identify deposits underground, the team
relies on geophysical methods that measure differences in gravity, magnetism, and electrical
resistance. For shallow studies, the team may use ground-penetrating radar. Seismic
techniques give the team a picture of underground rock formations, similar to how
earthquakes are located and measured.
Mineral rights are property rights that allow the owner to extract minerals within an area,
they may be separate from surface property ownership
STEPS IN EXPLORATION
An exploration team always plans ahead. Team members first read the scientific literature about the area and the type of mineral deposit they are seeking. This research helps make the most of valuable field time. The team determines what tools to use for exploration. Basic tools used in the initial fieldwork include a sturdy field vest or backpack, maps and GPS devices, a compass, a hat that provides shade, a full canteen, good hiking boots, a jacket, eye protection, a rock hammer, sample bags, a notebook and writing instrument(s), a pocketknife, a weak acid solution, and sometimes a four-wheel-drive vehicle.
The team then sets a timetable for when the work will be done and prepares a budget to determine how much the project will cost. Good communications are essential so the team members location, and when they plan to return, is always known. Land ownership is an important consideration. The exploration team needs to avoid trespassing (exploring on land without authorization). Local government offices have records of land ownership as well as information on who owns the mineral rights.
Besides asking the surface owner(s) for permission to prospect on a piece of land, the team may need to get permits from local, state, or federal government agencies before exploration on the ground begins. Typically, a team has specialists who find out about land ownership and obtain the necessary permits.
DRILLING AND IMAGING
If the fieldwork uncovers good signs of valuable minerals, the next step may be to drill core holes. This allows the geologists to see underground. Drilling also provides more geochemical or geophysical data. The exploration team enters all the data collected into a computer, constructing a geological model of the mineral resource. With enough data, a three-dimensional computer image can be created to show what the mineral deposit looks like underground.
Mining software uses prospecting data to build images of mineral deposits. This “slice" through such a model provides a 3-D view.
The next phase of exploration involves additional drilling of the mineral deposit. This helps determine the concentration of an element or a compound, along with other characteristics that allow it to be mined and processed. Once team members know how big the deposit is and what the grade is, they calculate the amount of the resource present. The resources calculation estimates how much ore is in the deposit. If the analysis is positive, then the next step is mine planning to see if mining is feasible.
One basic method that has long been used is to conduct an assay. Just as an 1849 California prospector might bring in a rock sample to have its composition analyzed, so do modern prospectors. By a series of chemical and physical tests, assaying reveals the elements of a rock sample. If an element of value has a high enough concentration, then an exploration program may follow. Some people choose exploration as a career because much of it is done outdoors.
The Major Steps in Exploration
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Library studies identify geological formations that may hold a mineral.
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Remote sensing may help to identify places to send an exploration team.
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Fieldwork planning is completed (obtaining permits, getting permission to explore the site, etc.).
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After examining the surface, more tests, like drilling, may be necessary.
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Field data is used to build a computer model of the mineral deposit.
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If there is potential economic value, core drill sampling is done.
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Enough data is collected to confirm the size and quality of the deposit.
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If the deposit still has potential economic value, mine planning begins.
mine planning and operations
If you're preparing to write a report for school or take a hike, your first step is to make a plan. You may plan by yourself, or have help from friends and family. The same is true in organizing a mining operation. Mine planning is the realm of the mining engineer, supported by geologists, metallurgists, and others.
Planning a new mine takes several steps as seen in this illustration. The steps are all connected. For instance, mine design and safety go hand-in-hand: land reclamation and mine closure may occur at the same time.
MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS
When identifying resources that could be mined, mining engineers (with the geologist) review the site information and analyze geographic, geologic, technical and economic information. As mining engineers calculate the resources that are recoverable (obtainable), they evaluate all the advantages and disadvantages of the mine site. This tells if it is feasible to mine and process resources economically and legally. A feasibility study completed at this point allows the mining company, bank(s), or investor(s) to decide if the project is worth their spending additional funds on it.
Resource control confirms ownership of land and minerals through lease or purchase. If the mineral is privately owned, surface and mineral owners and the mining company must all negotiate contract agreements to build the mine and share the profits.
When state or federal governments own the minerals in the ground, a U.S. citizen or corporation may stake a mining claim on land over the mineral occurrence. A claim owner has the right to possess and extract any minerals under the claim starting on the date the claim was located. There are several kinds of claims. Lode and placer claims are named for the type of mineral deposit under it. Mill site and tunnel site claims are necessary to locate and erect mills and other structures for mineral processing. We'll use a lode claim on federal land to describe how to locate a mining claim.
To locate a lode claim, you have to discover a valuable mineral there. Next you erect claim posts at the point of discovery and at each of the four corners of the claim. You then attach a location notice at the discovery post. Posted information typically includes the name of the claim, date of location, county and state, description of the land by township and range, name and address of the locator (you), and a map of the claim. You must record this within 90 days with the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the agency that administers all land owned by the U.S. government. You pay any filing fees at the time you record the claim.
Permitting a new mine can be a lengthy process, typically five years or more. A mine plan must meet all government rules, including local ordinances, to protect air, water, land, and wildlife. Permits are needed in several categories, including:
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Mining
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Reclamation
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Water discharge
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Air emissions
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Zoning
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Safety
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Wastewater control
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Explosives material handling and storage
Local, state, and federal agencies review and approve permits. Interested people and groups can learn about the mine plan and comment on it beforehand. Mine construction begins once permits are approved and the mining company posts a bond (a financial guarantee) to ensure that funds will be available for reclamation.
Infrastructure includes roads, water wells, gas pipelines, buildings, and electric power lines that are already there. In addition, mining infrastructure needs to be built. The mine may require haul roads: shafts; elevators; additional power, fuel, and water utilities: office facilities: showers and lockers for miners, warehouse and maintenance buildings, material handling, processing, disposal, and transportation facilities, and drainage and sediment-control systems (such as sediment ponds and ditches). Parts of the existing infrastructure may be unaffected, relocated, or mined around. Mine infrastructure is built so that it doesn't interfere with mining operations. For example, processing plants should not be constructed directly over minable resources.
Mine design varies according to the mining method. Plans for a surface mine take into account the shape of the pit, the amount of material to be handled, and the sequence of mining. Plans for an underground mine set the location of shafts, slopes, entries, ventilation systems, and roof supports, and the sequence of mining. Detailed plans and cost estimates determine whether a mine is economically feasible. The success or failure of the mining operation often depends on the success of the design phase.
Mine closure and land reclamation shuts down the mine and restores the site to a natural condition or to a useful purpose. Former mine sites are reshaped and contoured so they blend in with the surrounding area, restored sites are then replanted with vegetation. Reclamation of underground mines tends to be less involved because affected areas are smaller than for surface mines. When government authorities declare reclamation successful it allows the release of bonds posted before the mining started.
Long-term monitoring of a restored site is often necessary if there is a special concern. Examples may include specific needs for revegetation or perhaps erosion control.
Even after mining begins, mine planning doesn't stop. Ongoing mine planning can be short-term or long-term. Short-term planning typically covers less than five years, focusing on current mine operations, production goals, and economic budgets. Long-term planning extends more than a year beyond current mining activity. It provides detailed plans for at least 10 years as well as general plans for the life of the mine.
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TYPES OF MINING
The type of mine is determined by the size and shape of the mineral deposit how deep it is, and
the kind of rock that surrounds it. The main types of mineral deposits include tabular, massive,
vein, and placer.
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Tabular. The mineral deposit is basically horizontal and fairly uniform in thickness, like a
slab or countertop. It can be at the surface or thousands of feet below. Examples of minerals
found in tabular deposits are bituminous and lignite coal, limestone, salt, and trona (sodium
carbonate or soda ash). Many tabular deposits like coal, gypsum, and potash may have layers
of unwanted rock types in between -
Massive. The mineral deposit lies within a large rock formation and is usually hundreds of
feet thick and thousands of feet wide. It can be at the surface or thousands of feet below.
Massive mineral deposits include metals like gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc. -
Vein. The mineral deposit is a narrow sheetlike seam of mineral crystals within a host rock.
Veins come from crystal growth on the walls of fractures in rocks. They usually are inclined
(tilted). Some minerals found in veins include gold and silver. Steeply inclined anthracite coal
formations resemble vein deposits, but they developed by folding and faulting tabular
deposits. -
Placer. The deposit is an accumulation of minerals in loose sand and gravel. Streambeds
and beaches are the usual sites for placers. They are mined for gold, platinum, diamonds,
titanium, and uranium.
The mining engineer decides how to mine a mineral deposit safely with the least environmental
impact and at the lowest cost. Surface mining is usually the first choice if the mineral deposit is at
or near the surface. If it is deep below the surface, then underground mining is required. The
majority of all mined substances are mined by surface methods. Tabular, massive, and placer-type
deposits are mined this way.
SURFACE MINES
Surface Mines In a surface mine, the unwanted material above the mineral deposit is called the overburden. Mining starts when the overburden is removed by blasting and excavating. Once the mineral deposit is exposed, miners load the ore mineral into haul trucks or conveyor belts to transport it to a mineral processing plant.
Surface methods usually involve moving large amounts of material at a relatively low cost per ton or per cubic yard. A surface mine almost always appears larger than an underground mine that produces the same mineral because all the mine-works are visible. Underground mines can be the size of cities, but are hidden from view. Many underground mines range up to 24 square miles, as large as the island of Manhattan.
EXAMPLES OF SURFACE MINES
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Open-pit mine. This type of mine is typically used for massive deposits close to
the surface. A quarry is a common open-pit mine. Quarries produce building
materials such as sand, gravel and stone. Quarries are often located near
populated areas where the construction materials are used, so cooperation
between the mine and its neighbors is essential. -
Strip mine. This type of surface mining is generally used for tabular deposits.
The picture shows a strip mine in a coal deposit. Mine planners carefully design
the angle of the rock wall (above the coal) so that it does not fail during mining.
Notice the benches and roadways around the inside of Utah's Bingham Canyon, an open-pit copper mine. Bench design helps maintain the stability of the mine wall. Haul roads are required to remove rock from the pit.
Surface Mining Equipment
Surface mining requires huge equipment. For example, the largest bucket from a modern rubber-tire loader, used to excavate the blasted minerals and rocks, can hold 53 cubic yards. That's 160,000 pounds of material, which is equal to the weight of about 40 pickup trucks.
UNDERGROUND MINES
Underground mining is more selective in the way minerals are extracted. Under-ground mines
require careful designing and planning with more structures than surface mines. The necessary
structures include shafts, hoists (elevators), ventilation fans, underground maintenance shops,
and conveyance (transport) systems.
The geometry, or shape, of the deposit determines which underground method to use. No two
mineral deposits are identical, so the mine design is customized to the size, shape, and location
of the deposit.
EXAMPLES OF UNDERGROUND MINES
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Room and pillar. This mining method extracts minerals (tabular and massive) from a
series of rooms” along horizontal openings. Because part of the deposit is left behind as
support pillars to hold up the mine roof, it is not the most efficient method. Each pillar
tends to be the same size and shape for a particular mine, forming a pattern like a
checkerboard when viewed from above. Room-and-pillar mining is used to extract coal
and metal ores, stone, talc, soda ash, salt and potash. Most underground mines in the
United states use the room-and-pillar method. -
Longwall mining. In a longwall mine, a panel of coal or trona, measuring about two miles long and 750 to 1,500 feet wide, is cut by shearers (or plows) moving back and forth along the mine face (wall). Conveyors bring the mineral to the surface. Heavy-duty shields protect the miners working along the face and the shearing edge itself. As the shields move forward, overlying rock falls behind them into the empty spaces that were just mined. The fallen rock is known as gob.
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Block caving. This method mines large, low-grade ore bodies that are vertical or slightly inclined (massive or veins). The ore body is undercut (dug out from underneath), or undermined, over a large area. Then it is drilled and blasted above the undercut rock opening. The rock mass drops into draw bells and is removed at loading draw points, then conveyed or hoisted to the surface for processing.
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Stoping. Stoping is used when surrounding rock is strong enough to prevent a cave-in of the stope, or open space. Vertical shafts reach down to the ore body (massive or vein). Miners remove the ore along horizontal levels, or tunnels. Stoping is used to mine large deposits of gold, silver, lead, platinum, molybdenum, and many minerals.
SURFACE SUBSIDENCE
When minerals are removed from underground mines, the surface above may subside or sink. A room-and-pillar mine generally has no subsidence on the surface, unless the pillars fail after the mine closes. However, longwall or block caving methods will—by design—cause surface subsidence. So precautions are necessary to avoid mining under surface structures (buildings, highways, etc.) and may call for a plan to restore the surface structures after mining ends.
Many areas rely on groundwater for irrigation or drinking water. When there is subsidence, the water supply can be disrupted. In most cases, the interruption is temporary; in others it is permanent. Mining companies are required to provide alternative sources of water if they are responsible for water loss or poor water quality.
The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve
The BSA Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve was a mining site before reclamation and conversion to the Boy Scouts of America's new high-adventure facility. The pictures here show the Summit site as a 1900s underground coal mine, and as we know it now. This is a good example of how mine reclamation returns mined land to other uses. Today the Summit has been transformed into the BSA's world-class high-adventure base.
MINERAL PROCESSING
Companies mine minerals to sell at a profit to customers who need and demand them. However, most minerals cannot be sold immediately after they are extracted, because customers can't use them in that form. Mineral processing gets the minerals ready for the customers. Processing converts rock into a form that is usable, transforming it into such things as a gold bar, or separating it into different sizes for sand and gravel, or in the case of coal, it's cleaned to reduce pollution when it's burned. Mineral processing can be simple with only a few transformation steps, or it can take many steps to release the minerals or metals. Each step uses specialized tools and equipment. The equipment used in modern mineral processing is huge, highly automated, and worth millions of dollars.
PROCESSING METHODS
Separating and purifying an ore into a useful product can be difficult. In gold-bearing ores,
for example, the gold particles may be microscopic. The mining industry has found ways to
recover gold from grades as low as 0.01 ounce of gold per ton of ore. To put it another way,
a ball of gold ore 3 feet in diameter would contain the equivalent weight in gold of only 10
Cheerios (one-hundredth of an ounce).
ROCK CUTTING
Dimension stone is natural stone or rock that is cut to specific sizes or shapes. To make dimension stone, diamond saws and wedges separate large blocks of rock in quarries. The blocks are cut into smaller pieces: from small slate roofing tiles and walkway pavers to large rectangular slabs for granite kitchen and bath countertops and marble monuments or interior walls.
One responsibility of the mineral processing engineer and metallurgist is devising methods to remove valuable minerals from the ore rock after it is hauled out of the mine.
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ROCK CUTTING
STONE CRUSHING
MATERIAL SEPARATION
To separate different sizes of materials, screens are used. A mixture of sand and gravel may be fed into a series of screens to separate the various sizes. The fine sand might be used in a sand trap on a golf course, while the gravel could be used to make concrete or road base.
CRUSHING AND GRINDING
Many mineral processing plants have equipment to break different sizes of rocks into smaller ones. Large, heavy-duty crushers can reduce boulders the size of an automobile. Some crushers pinch the rocks between moving walls and fixed walls, much like a hammer and anvil.
Other kinds of crushers drop the rocks onto hard materials or other rocks to break them. In coal processing, for example, the coal is softer than the rocks, so the coal shatters. Rotary breakers reduce the size of the coal, which passes through holes in a drum. The larger rocks are rejected out one end. After going through a crusher, rocks may be ground to a fine powder using a mill. A mill is a cylinder or drum filled with rock, water, and steel balls or rods. As it rotates, the steel balls
crush and grind the rock into tiny particles making it possible later to separate the mineral
from the waste rock. Modern grinding mills may be up to 40 feet in diameter, and use 30,000
horsepower. A typical family car may have only 200 horsepower.
Grinding releases the individual mineral crystals that make up the rock. Once the different
mineral crystals are separated, they can be concentrated for higher purity. Separation
methods use the different physical and chemical properties of distinctive mineral crystals. For
example, magnetic separators concentrate magnetic mineral crystals, such as magnetite, from
nonmagnetic mineral crystals, such as quartz.
CYCLONE SEPARATION
Coal coming directly from the mine is contaminated with heavier rock and sulfur-bearing minerals such as pyrite. A type of gravity separator called a cyclone is used to separate out the lighter coal. The cyclone swirls a slurry (a mixture of water and solids) of pulverized coal and rock.
FLOTATION
Flotation is a chemical process for separation using a vat, or flotation cell, filled with water and a chemical called a flotation agent. Tiny ore mineral particles are added to the cell to form a slurry. Agitating it creates air bubbles, which mix with all the tiny particles. The air bubbles stick to the valuable mineral particles, lifting them to the surface to be skimmed off as foam: the waste minerals sink. In some cases, the desired mineral sinks and the waste minerals float to the top.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
Some minerals can be chemically dissolved, then recrystallized or precipitated into a highly pure solid form. Examples include titanium dioxide used in sunscreen to block ultraviolet radiation; sodium carbonate used in baking soda, and table salt formed by the evaporation of seawater. Some metal mines use a technique called heap leaching to chemically dissolve and separate valuable metals such as gold, copper, and silver from a pile of crushed rock.
SMELTING
Metal-containing minerals are concentrated by mineral processing and shipped to a smelter where high temperatures transform the metal-bearing mineral into pure metal. During smelting a flux, such as limestone, is added to the molten metal to combine with unwanted impurities called gangue. The combined gangue and flux form slag
that is separated from the molten metal. The molten metal is then poured into a
mold to make very pure bars or ingots. Smelting involves a chemical change to
the raw material, but in refining, the final material is usually chemically identical
to the original one, only purer.
REFINING
Refining is usually the last step in processing metals. After smelting, a metal is
dissolved in acid and electroplated (deposited in a thin layer by electrolysis) as an almost pure metal. In copper production, the copper coming from the smelter may contain impurities such as arsenic. The copper is dissolved in acid and then plated out in a way similar to how a car battery works, by creating an electric current. The pure copper is sold to make wire or other products.
CALCINATION
Another process of heat-treating rock or mineral is called calcination. In one example, calcination is used to transform calcite, the major component in limestone, into lime. (This was mentioned in the "Rocks and Minerals" section). Gypsum is calcined at 250 to 300 degrees Fahrenheit to remove the water of crystallization as water vapor. Calcined gypsum is called stucco.
WASTE PRODUCTS
After processing ore to recover valuable minerals, the leftover materials are called refuse, gangue, or tailings. These must be disposed of in an environmentally safe manner. Disposal facilities are designed to hold all the waste generated during decades of mining and processing plant operations.
Processing rocks and minerals is done in a plant that houses all the equipment and has storage space for ore, processed materials, and waste. Mineral processing requires moving and storing large volumes of rock, water, tailings, and finished products. Mineral processing plants can look very complicated with all the tanks, silos, conveyors, and pipes that transport materials from one stage to the next.
Gravity separators separate heavy, dense minerals such as gold from lighter rock fragments. An example of a simple gravity separator is the prospector's gold pan.
MINING IN THE FUTURE
In the future, mineral deposits most easily mined from Earth will be depleted. Miners will need to dig deeper and work in more challenging conditions to mine newly discovered deposits. Other potential sources of minerals exist beyond these, however. It may sound like science fiction to talk about mining the oceans or interplanetary space, but we already harvest minerals from the ocean. Also, detailed plans are in the works to mine the moon, near-Earth asteroids, and even other planets.
Miners have many reasons to look beyond the usual places for minerals. A mineral deposit in a remote location on Earth might not have water, electrical power, roads, or workers nearby, and the cost to install or obtain these might be excessive. In addition, the grade might not be high enough; that is, the mineral concentration might not be at the necessary level to cover the cost of the machines and processes to mine it. Also, an unfriendly country might control the only source of a certain mineral, charging high prices for it or preventing others from extracting it. Wars are sometimes fought over such resources.
Finally, the environmental cost of mining the usual places” may be too high in terms of loss of species (biodiversity), water and air pollution, damage to Earth's natural landscapes, or any combination of these.
MINING IN THE OCEAN AND SEABED
If you have ever tasted ocean water, you know how salty it is. The ocean is Earth's greatest storehouse of minerals. Besides hydrogen and oxygen that make up water, the most abundant elements in the ocean are sodium and chlorine, the elements that form salt. While these elements come mostly from surface erosion of the continental landmass, most sodium is leached from the ocean floor and most chlorine is emitted from Earth's interior by volcanoes and hydrothermal vents.
Electrolysis removes magnesium metal from seawater in one step. The magnesium forms alloys with other metals, especially aluminum.
Other abundant elements dissolved in seawater are magnesium, sulfur, calcium, potassium, carbon, bromine, boron, strontium, and fluorine. Some are already mined from the oceans. You are eating salt harvested from seawater if the package says "sea salt." Common salt is obtained from seawater by collecting it in ponds where the sun's energy evaporates the water. The salt is left behind as sodium chloride crystals and is then harvested for consumption. Salt is used for seasoning and preserving food. It is also used in water softening and for deicing roads in wintertime.
Bromine, too, is extracted from seawater. It is used in flame retardants, water purification, particularly in swimming pools and hot tubs, pesticides: over-the-counter and prescription drugs, and photography. Iodine is mined from ocean water by harvesting seaweed. Its dry weight can have up to 0.45 percent iodine. Without iodine as a catalyst, or booster, plastic drinking bottles would not be possible. Other uses for iodine include pesticides, medical applications, pharmaceuticals, and stain-resistant chemicals.
The shallow near-shore realm concentrates some minerals. Gravel for concrete and beach reconstruction is mined by dredging the sea bottom close to shore. Titanium dioxide is mined along beaches and offshore sandbars as the minerals rutile, anatase, leucoxene, and ilmenite. These are heavier than the rest of the sand grains, so gravity processing easily separates them.
DEEP-SEA MINING
Volcanic activity and hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor yield iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, and zinc. Harvesting these requires deep-sea mining methods. The crushing pressure of the water, frigid temperatures, and total darkness are among the challenges of deep-sea mining. New exploration methods are needed—mobile exploration platforms for deep-sea drilling and mapping, and remote sampling techniques. Remote-control methods and robotics are likely answers to the challenges. Some minerals might be scooped off the ocean bottom at a depth of two to three miles (13,000 to 18,000 feet). Manganese nodules, composed mostly of manganese and iron compounds, might be mined this way. The nodules are valued for other metals they contain—copper, nickel, and cobalt.
For locating, sampling, and drilling these hard-to-reach deposits, new approaches are necessary. How can these minerals be dug from the ocean floor? How can they be brought to the surface? Can they be processed in factory ships or shipped to processing plants onshore? What is to be done with leftover materials after separating the desired metals? These are questions that still must be answered for a successful deep-sea mining operation.
Protecting the Marine Environment
The environmental impacts of ocean mining must be considered before launching any operations. Where unique marine habitats exist mine operations face restrictions.
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Seasonal limitations may be necessary to protect marine organisms during special life stages such as breeding and egg or embryo development.
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Dredging changes seabed topography which may
need to be restored. -
Mining could displace certain bottom-dwellers.
Miners will need to consider how long it would
take for these organisms to recover and
reestablish colonies. -
Miners will need to limit the amount of disturbed
seafloor sediment that increases cloudiness or turbidity (measure of light transmitted through water).
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MINING IN SPACE
Most of the Apollo astronauts were not geologists, so they received extensive training in geology before their moon missions. It was essential for them to know about rocks before they landed. Rocks would reveal how Earth and the moon were similar and whether they shared a common origin.
In 1972, the last moon mission landed a geologist-astronaut on the lunar surface so that a better
geological assessment could be made. Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt, holder of a Ph.D. in geology, could
expertly judge the rocky terrain and quickly saw the potential mineral wealth right at his feet. He later
proposed commercial ventures to mine lunar helium-3, which could theoretically be used for fuel for
nuclear fusion, replacing nuclear fission and fossil fuels.
Developing such space enterprises would help to use resources from space to support human space
activities and settlement, and help develop efficient and cost-effective ways to launch large payloads from Earth into deep space.
CHALLENGES OF SPACE MINING
Mining methods in space would resemble those on Earth, but adjusted for the absence of oxygen and differences in gravity. Surface methods will be used when minerals are at or near the surface. Devices will collect magnetic metals and minerals such as those associated with iron meteorites. Underground shafts will be dug when the target is a deep lode or vein. Space miners will likely melt ice to get water and to generate oxygen for breathing.
For interplanetary mining, the equipment would have to be shipped or manufactured in space on site, or shipped as parts from Earth, then assembled on-site. Space mining poses major transportation challenges at every stage that must yet be overcome. Designs are on the drawing boards, however, for space barges, space tugs, and power-generation systems.
Another issue is whether to process raw materials on-site, ship them to mills on Earth, or transport them to mills on specially designed space stations. Interplanetary shipping of large, bulky loads will be expensive, so processing on-site will probably be more cost-effective. This does not eliminate the problem since refined metals and maybe industrial minerals will have to be shipped, too.
Just like on Earth, an interplanetary exploration team must decide whether to use robot or human operators.
Hauling, crushing, and screening all depend on gravity to some extent, so these steps need modification for smaller cosmic bodies with less gravity. Enclosed circuits using magnetic, electric, or pneumatic air pressure) transport may solve the problem, or previously unforeseen technology may be developed. Flotation processes will face the similar challenges of low gravity, limited water, and exposure to the hazards of space.
High cost is the main concern for any space operation. Today it would take billions of dollars to explore, mine, and ship mere ounces of materials to Earth. Instead of bringing the minerals to Earth, space mining might best be applied as what is called “in situ resource utilization," where materials are found. extracted, processed, and used right at the site. Mined materials would be used for constructing and maintaining space stations or human settlements in near and deep space. Even so, interplanetary mining remains an expensive proposition. Only space-faring nations with the incentive and economic means could plan such ventures.
MINING LANDFILLS
You are finished with an electronic device that no longer works and is too costly to repair. Everything we use has a life expectancy—the time when it becomes obsolete, it no longer performs its intended function, or it isn't needed anymore. The item enters the waste stream: the flow of waste from its point of origin through its treatment to its disposal. What we toss out may end up in a sanitary landfill. waste incinerator, recycling center, or open-air dump.
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, for every million cell phones recycled, we recover 35,274 pounds of copper, 772 pounds of silver, 75 pounds of gold and 33 pounds of palladium. Recovering these metals saves energy and reduces the extraction of raw metals from the earth.
Many cities and towns have recycling programs. Most people are familiar with curbside recycling—we put recyclable household items (typically paper, plastics, glass, and aluminum) in a bin and take them to the curb, and municipal sanitation workers haul them to a recycling facility for sorting and distribution. Some communities have recycling centers where citizens drop off their recyclables. Once sorted and separated into different categories, the recyclables can be used to make new products.
Not all recycling centers accept electronic waste. Before you decide to throw out any electronic devices, check the municipal policy in your area. More and more centers now recycle electronics, from cell phones and laptops to TVs and other electronic devices. After sorting, the devices are dismantled and processed. Many of them contain contaminants such as lead, cadmium, and beryllium, which require special handling and disposal or recycling. Many metals, such as gold, silver, platinum, palladium, copper, tin, and zinc, can be recovered in recycling Glass and plastics also are recovered and recycled.
These recycled materials-no longer destined for landfills or incinerators—are recovered and used to create new products. Garden furniture, license plate frames, nonfood containers, replacement auto parts, art, and jewelry are among the many types of goods produced from recycled materials. Rechargeable batteries are recycled into other rechargeable battery products.
Iron, nickel, platinum, and cobalt are among the valuable elements that may be mined from asteroids or other cosmic bodies.
RECYCLING METALS
Most metals remain usable even after the products that use them have reached the end of their lifespan. Recycling metals saves the energy that is used to separate them from their ores. Also, the hauling of the recycled objects is usually shorter than from distant mined sources, further saving energy and the materials used in mining.
Worldwide demand for metals grows steadily at 1 to 3 percent annually. Even this apparently slow growth rate means additions must continually be made to the metal supply. New supplies come from new mine developments, expansions of existing operations, increased recycling, or all three.
Typically called scrap metal, recycled metal is categorized as either new or old scrap. New scrap comes from pre-consumer sources generated from the manufacturing of different products. Some gold, for example, is wasted unintentionally in the production of jewelry. The unused waste gold still has value, so the jewelry maker sells it to a scrap dealer. That way the unused gold is reintroduced into the jewelry-making business.
Old scrap comes from post-consumer supplies generated when an item has reached the end
of its usefulness. Cast-off jewelry, dental gold (gold teeth), and the gold components of
unwanted electronics are good examples of old-scrap gold. Copper is another commonly
recycled metal. A third or more of annual consumption comes from recycled scrap copper.
Other metals typically recycled at scrap yards include aluminum, brass, lead, silver, platinum,
iron, steel, and zinc. Most of these are recycled by manufacturers as new scrap. Much of the
old scrap is rescued from the waste stream and recycled by individuals committed to
salvaging such materials.
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough
energy to run a TV for three hours.
Sanitary landfills will probably be one source of minerals in the future. Metals and other
materials could be extracted from them, processed, and refined for reuse.
"RECYCLING" LANDFILLS
Except for the items that people conscientiously recycle and reuse, the vast majority of material entering the waste stream is picked up as municipal waste and placed in sanitary landfills. Waste in landfills is buried between layers of earth and isolated from the environment until it breaks down biologically, chemically, and physically.
Mining municipal landfills will require special skills and techniques to protect air, water, and soil from contamination. Care will be needed to restore or reclaim the sites for uses such as farming, forestry, recreation (golf courses, public parks, zoos, ball fields, etc.), or industrial parks for factories and other businesses.
Most of the consumer waste in landfills still has value. How could we recycle everything? Organics (substances of plant or animal origin) could serve as compost and be used as fuel. Solids such as plastics could become fuels or the basis for new products. Glass could be recycled for new glass or energy-saving insulation. One innovation is to use glass fibers with cement to form a stronger type of concrete.
We are able to account for about 85 percent of all the gold ever mined. About 15 percent is lost, mainly in electronics because the amount of gold in each device is too tiny to be recovered economically. The rest of the world's mined gold is held as heirloom jewelry, coins, and gold bullion (bars or ingots).
HEALTH AND SAFETY IN MINES
At one time, mining was the most dangerous occupation in the United States. Making mines healthier and safer places is the responsibility of everyone involved—mine owners and workers, and federal and state governments. Improvements in mining engineering, education and training, government regulation, and industry leadership and decreasing community tolerance of mining incidents has led to a significant reduction in mining incidents and disasters.
Today, mining is among the safest industries in the United States as measured by nonfatal injury rates.
Operating a healthy and safe mine requires planning and active participation of all workers, from senior managers to miners. Mining companies understand that safety is a moral obligation necessary to minimize losses. Safety and health laws and regulations cover all facets of mining: planning, operations, maintenance, equipment, training, blasting, air quality, emergency response, etc. The U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration and state agencies enforce mine health and safety laws and regulations.
The industry strives continually to improve safety. Many companies working with the National Mining Association have launched the CORESafety program to do just that. It plans to optimize mine safety by improving mine engineering work processes, and working conditions.
TOOLS FOR MINE AND HEALTH SAFETY
It is difficult to eliminate all risk from mining, so the focus is on managing risk at an acceptable level—for miners, management, government, and society. Some tools and techniques used in American mines to this end include hazard identification and risk assessment, personal protective equipment, environmental monitoring, and the introduction of automation for mining equipment.
Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment
"Being prepared” in mining means to anticipate and understand the risks in the mine. What is the likelihood that something will go wrong, and what is likely to happen if it does? Examples include the potential for gas or dust explosion in underground coal mines, mine wall collapse, fire, and mobile equipment striking a miner.
Personal Protective Equipment
Miners wear personal protective equipment to guard against injury. A hard hat protects the head; safety
glasses protect eyes, earplugs or ear-muffs minimize exposure to noise; gloves protect hands; and hard-toed
boots minimize the risk of foot injury from impact, slip trip, pinch heat and cold, etc. Where needed,
respirators protect against inhaling harmful dust, fumes, or gases.
Experts believe it is more effective to eliminate hazards where they occur. An example is using roof bolts to prevent roof fall accidents by holding up an underground mine roof. Steel rods, 4 to 16 feet long, anchor the roof rock in place. Ventilation systems help ensure air quality. When coal rock releases flammable methane gas, ventilation dilutes its concentration. Large fans on the surface and auxiliary fans inside the mine provide ventilation throughout underground tunnels and shafts to accomplish this.
Underground miners use a "self-rescue device" for protection from carbon monoxide gas and when escaping from smoke and toxic gases in case of fire or explosion.
Environmental Monitoring Technology
Different instruments, often handheld devices, detect harmful and flammable gases, dust, fumes, noise, or radiation, and ensure that adequate oxygen is present. Some monitor many gases at the same time. Others measure airflow in the ventilation system.
Instruments may be stationary or attached to mobile equipment. They measure environmental factors—such as carbon monoxide levels—in the mine, relying on telemetry (wireless communication) to send data to central control stations. Computers monitor ventilation fans in underground mines. Other devices track the position of miners so that mobile equipment doesn't run into them.
Detection systems warn miners of any developing fire. Alarms announce the need to take action. It may mean to evacuate the mine or, in an underground mine, to seek shelter in a refuge chamber. GPS networks help surface mines pinpoint equipment and help isolate hazards as they occur.
Remote Control and Automation
Computer technology has radically improved mine safety and health. Many mining
machines are remotely controlled to keep the miner from exposure to moving parts,
dust, noise, unstable ground, etc. The introduction of robotics is helping miners reduce
exposure to unnecessary risks. Some surface mines now use haul trucks that run
without a driver, using satellite navigation and robotics.
SAFETY ABANDONED MINES - KEEP OUT!
Mines are not like caverns open to the public for tours and recreation. Every year,
dozens of people are injured or killed in accidents on mine property. Active mines are
dangerous places even for highly trained workers and are regularly inspected for
hazardous conditions, unlike abandoned mines. These are not inspected and probably not ventilated, which means toxic or explosive gases may be present. Tripping and falling is common in abandoned mines—they are unlit and have no guardrails.
Quarry ponds, too, are dangerous. Diving into them is extremely risky because pond depth can vary greatly and abruptly. Riding dirt bikes and quads (four-wheelers) or otherwise trespassing on mine property is dangerous and illegal. High walls or steep cliffs may not be well marked
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Mine rescue work uses a track-mounted robot to explore mines, reducing the need to send workers into potentially dangerous conditions. Automation and robotics will increasingly be used as people mine deeper deposits less accessible to miners, such as very thin deposits.
Stay Out - Stay Alive!
Every year, dozens of people are injured or killed at active and abandoned mine sites. Every single one of these tragedies could have been avoided. The goal of this nationwide effort - called Stay Out - Stay Alive is to educate the public, particularly young people, about the dangers of abandoned and active mines.
Water-filled quarries and pits hide rock ledges, old
machinery and other hazards. The water can be
deceptively deep and dangerously cold. Steep,
slippery walls make exiting the water difficult. Hills of
loose material can easily collapse on an unsuspecting
biker or climber. Vertical shafts can be hundreds of
feet deep and may be completely unprotected, or hidden by vegetation.
Even so dozens of people are injured or killed while exploring or playing on mine property every year. The men and women employed in our nation's mines are trained to work in a safe manner. For trespassers, hazards are not always apparent.
For example:
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Water-filled quarries can not only hide rock ledges but can also contain dangerous electric currents that become deadly under water.
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Abandoned mine shafts that may seem fun to explore can unexpectedly collapse.
It is more important than ever to remind people to stay out of abandoned or active mine sites like quarries and pits – and stay alive.
SUSTAINABILITY IN MINING
Sustainability relates to harvesting resources in ways that do not squander them or permanently damage the environment. A sustainable lifestyle or society meets today's needs without using up natural resources for future generations. Recycling is a way to make minerals "partially renewable."
MINING IN SOCIETY
By now, you know how important mining is in our society. You have learned the old saying of miners: "If it can't be grown, it has to be mined." Mining provides, directly or indirectly, many of the raw materials needed to sustain life and maintain civilization. Unlike raw materials that are grown, the products of mining are not renewable. The mineral resources available to us are limited by our ingenuity to find and recover them safely.
Renewable resources can be replenished or replaced over time and measured in human terms, such as within generations. An example is growing new trees for lumber after harvesting the site by logging. Metallic, most forms of energy, and industrial minerals, however, are nonrenewable resources. They cannot be replenished at rates that match human timeframes. Minerals require vast stretches of geologic time to concentrate them in deposits suitable for mining.
Mining directly affects the natural environment while working to meet the needs of a modern global economy. In this way, the job of mining is unique. The industry must find and extract mineral resources, while keeping in mind that sustain-ability calls for meeting the needs of future generations and conserving the environment. That means balancing the demand for products and materials with good stewardship of the land.
When it comes to sustainability, most mining operations face these challenges:
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Dwindling mineral resources have forced operations to move nearer to areas that are environmentally or culturally sensitive, or more densely populated.
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Population growth has moved people closer to existing mining operations.
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New mineral resources tend to be found in remote locations, often in undeveloped countries.
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Greater environmental awareness among the public, elected officials, and the media have brought mining operations under closer scrutiny.
A FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABILITY
The Sustainability merit badge shows a model of the three P's—people, prosperity, and the planet-tied to the three E's-equity (fairness), economy, and environment. In mining, a fourth ethical component-governance, or safety—can be added to the mix. Each essential element depends on the other. Improvements in one area often come at the expense of another. Consider each element in the framework and how the elements interact.
People and Community
A mining company is made up of people—its workers, as well as its customers and neighboring communities. Responsible companies recognize community (people) priorities while planning, when mining, and during reclamation.
For example, when planning a new coal mine in southwest Pennsylvania, the mine company met with more than 200 citizen groups to explain how the mine would be a good neighbor. In another instance, the geologist for a new stone quarry near Washington, D.C., explained the geology and rocks to 20,000 second-graders. Through them, he reached their parents, who initially opposed the mine. As a result, local opposition ended 18 months later. Treating people fairly is important to maintaining a positive footing.
Planet and Environment
Earth provides essential resources for life. Without air to breathe, food to eat, and water to drink, we would not survive. Other resources add convenience and comfort to our lives. As our quality of life improves, few of us would want to go back to the way things were before we had cars, paved roads, electricity, indoor plumbing, and cell phones.
Mineral resources can be wasted by poor mining methods. Responsible companies respect the environment by using and producing resources wisely. They take into account environmental impacts in each stage of the mine's life. Water and air used by mineral processing operations are subject to strict environmental regulation. The goal is to reduce the effects of mining operations to balance the benefits that society receives from the mined resources. Mineral processing plants treat water to remove solid or dissolved substances before releasing water into the environment. Water is treated so that it is not cloudy, it has a neutral pH (not acidic or basic), and impurities are below natural levels of local streams. Other equipment removes dust, toxic gases, and other compounds to prevent them from entering surrounding air.
Interactions
People, businesses, and the environment are all essential parts of sustainability; they interact. Responsible mining companies recognize these interactions and know how to be good neighbors and stewards of the land. As a Scout, think about how you can make a difference through the Scout Law and principles of sustainability Consider these examples of how a Scout is:
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Trustworthy. Sustainability starts with you. As a young leader, you can help by recycling and by advocating low-impact solutions to everyday issues.
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Loyal. Demonstrate sustainability by reminding others how we share limited resources.
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Helpful. Make a difference in your family and community—and help our world-by using only what you need.
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Clean. Respect our world and the valuable resources we consume every day. Set an example by disposing of all waste properly, using less, and protecting resources more.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was formed in 1970. The Boy Scouts of America introduced the Environmental Science merit badge in 1972 to teach Scouts about conservation and care of the environment. In 1977, Congress passed the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act to regulate the environmental impacts of mining. In 1983, the United Nations appointed the World Commission on Environment and Development to unite member countries in pursuing sustainable development.
MINE LAND RECLAMATION
Mine land reclamation is a part of sustainability. Before mining begins, the condition of the land is assessed. Land use, watersheds, topography, and wildlife habitat are considered. The future effect of mining on each is determined, and plans are made to restore the land. One goal of mine land reclamation is to return the land to as good or better condition than it was before mining began. In this way, reclamation is similar to Scouting's no-trace principles.
Oftentimes land uses change after mining. The goal is to prepare the land for better use. For example, the King Coal Highway being built across southern West Virginia links surface mine reclamation sites together to complete the construction of the highway. When mining is finished, the highway will need only the road surface constructed, saving millions of dollars.
To restore mine land or improve the land to beneficial use, steps are taken to preserve qualities that have special value, such as topsoil and vegetation. Reclamation begins with stockpiling top-soil. Then the topsoil is planted with native vegetation to help prevent erosion of the stockpile and preserve native plant species. This topsoil is then spread over the disturbed land when mining ends.
The mining industry takes mine land reclamation and restoration seriously. The industry sees how stewardship of the land, from which it draws its livelihood and wealth adds great value to communities. It also helps enrich the public's understanding of the reclamation and restoration process.
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CAREERS IN MINING
When most people think about what a miner does, the first image that springs to mind is the miner heading underground with a headlamp, hardhat, simple tools, and a lunch pail. Or you may think about the shovel operator, haul-truck driver, or someone working a bulldozer or front-end loader. These images have triggered the imaginations of artists and writers who have passed them down to us over time.
A career in the mining industry includes many more occupations than these. The cycle of developing mineral resources has many parts, and all offer interesting, well-paying career opportunities. Mine workers take satisfaction in knowing they provide essential minerals and fuels that benefit society. Discovering and providing the minerals that increase our standard of living, minimizing environmental impacts, and contributing to a safe work situation are all benefits of a mining career. A mining career offers the prospect of travel, the challenge of working with advanced technology, and the opportunity for career advancement with increased responsibilities.
This illustration shows the sequence of events in mining and related careers.
MINING PERSONNEL
Some positions in mining are paid hourly. People working in the mine itself are mostly equipment operators. Those working at a surface mine include drillers and blasters, dragline, shovel, and excavator operators; front-end loader and bulldozer operators; haul-truck drivers, and support personnel. In an underground mine, workers operate cutting machines, shuttle cars, roof bolters, scoops, longwall shearers, jumbo drills, loaders, haul trucks, belt conveyors, trains, and other mobile equipment.
An operating mine might be in a remote location, along with the operations office and any connected processing plant. The division offices and company headquarters, however, or technical support are generally located in a large town or city.
The workers at a processing plant operate equipment for crushing and screening; physical and chemical procedures, especially in metal mines; haulage and mobile equipment; lab work; mapping and surveying; and other tasks. These are supported by software specialists, mechanics, welders, machinists, electricians, general laborers, and equipment manufacturers.
TECHNICAL PERSONNEL
The minimum educational requirement for technical workers typically is a high school diploma. An associate degree or trade school education will help the worker meet requirements for positions of greater responsibility and higher pay. An example is the electrical certification required for an underground electrician, who is paid more than a typical laborer in a coal mine. Underground professionals tend to earn more than their counterparts in surface mining. Many trade skills are obtained through programs provided by the mining company in combination with on-the-job training or community colleges.
PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL
Many different kinds of professionals are needed to explore for minerals and to mine them; to plan new operations or to manage a mine. Mining professionals include geologists, mining and geological engineers, metallurgists, civil engineers, mine managers, and environmental specialists. These positions require a college degree, and in some cases, graduate degrees. Professional personnel evaluate the mineral or ore deposit for its economic potential. They create mining plans based on those evaluations. Scientists and engineers work together to plan and build the processing plant(s) needed to treat the ore or rocks after they are hauled out of the mine.
It takes many thousands of people to mine all the minerals and fuels we rely on and use. Mining provides above average income to miners, pays taxes to local, state, and federal governments, and often works with local communities to improve the quality of life for its neighbors.
CAREERS SUPPORTING THE MINING INDUSTRY
Equipment manufacturers and service companies support the mining industry, too. A wide variety of products is delivered to mines, ranging from office supplies to explosives, to heavy equipment Service companies may provide security for the mine site; workers for short-term maintenance positions such as welders, mechanics, and electricians, and consulting engineers for almost every aspect of mining and processing. There are careers in regulating the mining industry on local, state, or federal levels. These include health and safety inspectors, reclamation and water quality technicians and inspectors, and environmental quality experts.
Herbert Clark Hoover (1874-1964), was a mining engineer and scholar before he became the 31 st president of the United States (1929-1933). His mining career began in 1897, in the gold fields of Western Australia. He later traveled to the Far East, where he worked for the Chinese Bureau of Mines as chief engineer and then as general manager of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Corporation. Hoover became an independent mining consultant in 1908, setting up offices worldwide. His mining ventures brought him wealth, but he was also famous as a published scholar.
John Llewellyn Lewis (1880-1969) was an American leader of organized
labor. From 1920 to 1960 he served as president of the United Mine
Workers of America. He also worked to establish the Congress of
Industrial Organizations, organizing millions of industrial workers in
the 1930s. Under his leadership, coal miners won high wages, an
eight-hour work day, good pensions, and good medical benefits.
The creation of the UMWA Welfare and Retirement Fund was perhaps
his greatest legacy. The fund helped establish eight regional hospitals
and many medical clinics in Appalachian coal country. In 1964,
President Lyndon Johnson awarded Lewis the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian decoration in the country, recognizing his many contributions to the labor movement.
CONNECTED CHALLENGES
The challenges below are for designed to allow you to explore more about mining Earth's resources doing hands-on activities. These are labeled by program area. To find which activities correlate with your advancement, check your connected tracking sheets located at St. Michael - Starting Line.
PROPERTIES OF force
Explore the properties of force by knocking over dominos by blowing a ping pong ball with a straw!
Materials Needed:
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Dominos
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A ping pong
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Straw
Instructions:
-
Set up dominos on the table
-
Using a straw, blow enough air through the straw to knock over a domino with the ping pong ball! Can you knock over more than 1 domino?
Force is the push or pull applied on an object. It can move a stationary object or stop a moving object. Force can also change the speed and direction of a moving object. If enough force is applied, it can also change the shape or size of an object.
PROPERTIES OF MOTION
What happens when you roll different objects down an incline? Will they roll
at the same speed? Will they do in a straight line? Let's investigate!
Materials Needed:
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Different-sized balls
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Cylinders
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Pipes
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Other similar items
Instructions:
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Roll multiple objects at once down an incline and observe what happens!
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Push the items across the floor and observe what happens!
Which ones roll faster—solid objects or hollow objects? Cylinders or spheres? Objects with large diameters or small diameters? When they roll down the incline, which one rolls the farthest? When they are pushed across the floor, do they roll at the same rate?
Learn more about how things roll and fall at different speeds!
MAKE A PULLEY
Make two simple pulleys, and use them to move objects.
A pulley is a simple machine that lets you lift objects into the air. It was invented
thousands of years ago but is still used every day. When you raise a flag on a
flagpole, you use a pulley. When a construction crane lifts girders into the air, it uses a
pulley. In fact, everything from elevators to workout equipment uses pulleys - including
miners!
A pulley has just a few parts: a wheel, an axle that the wheel turns around, and a rope
or cable. The wheel usually has a groove in it so the rope won’t slide off. Simple pulleys
are useful, but what makes them really cool is when you put pulleys together. When
you use two pulleys to lift an object, the object becomes twice as easy to lift. When you use four pulleys, it becomes four times as easy to lift. With enough pulleys (and enough really, really strong cable), you could actually lift a car off the ground all by yourself!
Here are two simple pulleys you can make:
PULLEY #1
MATERIALS NEEDED
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Rolling pin with handles
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String
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Heavy book
PROCEDURE
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Wrap the end of the string around the book a couple of times and then tie it snugly.
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Place the book on the floor and use the string to lift the book with one hand.
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Now, have a partner hold the rolling pin tightly by the handles at chest height.
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Loop the string over the top of the rolling pin.
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Use the string to pull the book up.
Which way of lifting the book was easier? Did one way take more strength than the other?
PULLEY #2
MATERIALS NEEDED
-
Two large spools
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Two pencils or dowels (they must be able to fit in the spool hole and move easily)
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30 feet of string or strong yarn
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An index card
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A clothespin or clip
PROCEDURE
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Insert a pencil or dowel into each spool, making sure the spool can spin easily.
-
Tie the two ends of the string or yarn together to form a big loop.
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Place the loop around the spools.
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Have a partner hold each of the spool pulleys by its pencil or dowel axle.
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Stretch your loop until it is tight enough to be straight, but still loose enough to turn.
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Write a message on a card and attach it to the string with a clothespin near one pulley.
-
Gently pull the string to make the string roll over the spools.
See if you can use your pulley system to deliver a message to a friend on the other side of the room. How else could you use this pulley system? How could you secure the pulleys at both ends so your friends don’t have to hold them? What other improvements could you make?
Don't have spools? Make a pulley system using string and carabiners!
MAKE A lever
Make a lever by creating a seesaw using a spool and a wooden paint stirrer. Explore the way it balances by placing different objects on each end.
What’s a lever? That’s a fancy term for the science that makes a playground seesaw work.
The fulcrum is the hinge or balancing point. The lever is the board.
As you’ve probably figured out on the playground, if an object is farther from the fulcrum,
it takes a smaller force to produce the same work. When you get on the seesaw with
someone who’s a lot bigger than you, he has to sit closer to the fulcrum for the seesaw to
balance. When you sit very far from the fulcrum, you can lift a heavier person at the other
end. (With a really long seesaw, you could even lift a 300-pound football player!)
That principle, called leverage, is why levers are so useful. You can find levers in all sorts
of places, including a pair of scissors, a crowbar, a hammer pulling a nail, a wheelbarrow, a
bottle opener, a nutcracker, and even your own jaw. (There are three classes of levers, so
these things don’t all work exactly the same way.)
MAKE A LEVER
MATERIALS NEEDED
-
Paint stirrer
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Pencil Spool (the edges should be wider than the paint stirrer)
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Rubber band
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Small weights or other objects
PROCEDURE
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Find the middle of the paint stirrer and mark it with the pencil.
-
Hold the spool on the line you just drew.
-
Lay the rubber band over the paint stirrer and loop it over each end of the spool. (This will hold the spool and paint stirrer together.)
Congratulations! You’ve just made a lever! Now, experiment with it by adding weights or other objects to each end. How easy is it to get the lever to balance? What happens if the weight on one end is too heavy?
After you’ve played with your lever for a while, move the spool closer to one end of the paint stirrer. How does that change the way the lever works? Do you see why levers can be useful tools?
GO ON A ROCK HUNT
Look for different kinds of rocks or minerals while on a rock hunt with your family!
Everywhere you look there are rocks and minerals. They are part of your world every day. Some rocks are small pebbles, and some are gigantic mountains. Your own backyard and neighborhood are good places to begin collecting rocks. Think about how these rocks were formed and how they ended up where you found them.
COLLECTING SPECIMENS
One way to begin a collection of geologic specimens is to visit a business that sells building stone or makes gravestones. These businesses might have small scraps of marble, granite, sandstone, limestone, pumice, shale, or slate they will give you. A nearby science museum might also have rock specimens for sale. You can also go on a field trip. If possible, go with a rock hound, a collector who knows a lot about rocks. A rock hound will know which rocks contain useful materials. Look for minerals in gravel or sand pits, road cuts, diggings, mountains, hills, and stream banks. Keep your rock samples small. Small ones are easier to carry and easier to care for. Safety is very important when on a rock hunt. Always have an adult with you. Stay away from dangerous areas like cliffs, quarries, mines, and mine dump heaps. Be careful when climbing on rocks. And watch out for snakes. They may live under rocks, so always poke around a rock with a long stick before reaching under it.
Collecting rocks is not allowed in national parks and in many state parks. Ask permission before you collect anywhere. If you aren’t permitted to collect rock samples, take pictures of your findings to use in a display.
GEOLOGIST'S EQUIPMENT LIST
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Written or verbal permission to collect rocks
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Safety glasses to protect your eyes
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A pocket magnifier for seeing things up close
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A geologist’s hammer for pulling rocks out of hillsides and breaking them open
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A cold chisel, half an inch to 1 inch wide, for chipping stone with a hammer and for digging things loose
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Clear plastic food storage bags; write the number of the rock sample on paper and slip it into the bag with the rock sample
-
A small notebook and pencil for recording where and
when you found a sample; number each sample in
the notebook -
Heavy gloves for rough work
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A small day pack for
carrying equipment and rocks
YOUR COLLECTION
You can display your rock collection by putting your rocks in egg cartons, or you can make dividers for shoeboxes. On each rock specimen, paint a spot of quick-drying white enamel. When it is dry, write a number on the spot with a dark felt-tip pen. For each specimen, keep a card with that number. The card is where you will record what the specimen is and where and when you found it.
IDENTIFY YOUR ROCKS
Identify the rocks you saw on your rock hunt.
Using a guide to rocks and minerals, identify what you have collected or taken pictures of. With a magnifying glass, take a closer look at your collection. Do you see anything different when looking up close? Share what you see!
Geologists use the following tests to identify minerals.
-
Color test: Scratch the specimen on a plate of unglazed porcelain or the back of a piece of tile. The color that appears helps to identify it.
-
Luster test: How does the specimen look when light is reflected from it? Is it shiny, dull, or greasy?
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Cleavage test: How does it split or break up? Does it turn into powder or split in layers? If it breaks into crystals, how many sides does a crystal have?
-
Chemical test: Does it contain limestone? If a drop of vinegar
bubbles on it, the answer is yes. -
Hardness test: How hard is it? See the hardness scale in
requirement 4
KINDS OF ROCKS
All rocks belong to one of the three main groups that
make up the Earth’s crust. They are igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rock is any rock made by cooling magma (hot, molten material
that flows under the Earth’s surface) or lava (molten rock that comes
out of a volcano). Examples of igneous rock include basalt, granite, and obsidian.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sediment is gravel, sand, clay, or soil that settles and hardens out of water in riverbeds, ponds, lakes, and oceans. Sediment may contain shells and skeletons. Sedimentary rock is formed in layers, like a giant cake, after sediment has been under great pressure for millions of years. If the sediment was originally sand, it becomes sandstone. Clay turns into shale. Shells and skeletons make limestone. Small pebbles and sand form conglomerate.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rock has been through a process much like baking. (Meta means changed, and morphic means form.) The change is caused by intense heat and great pressure deep in the earth. Under these conditions, sedimentary limestone becomes marble. Sedimentary sandstone turns into quartzite. Igneous granite changes into gneiss (pronounced “nice”).
MAKE A MINERAL TEST KIT
Make a mineral test kit, and test rocks according to the Mohs scale of mineral hardness and record your results.
A long time ago, a geologist named Friedrich Mohs figured out that you can test the hardness of rocks and minerals by seeing whether they can scratch other materials or whether other materials can scratch them. He created a scale that gives different rocks and minerals hardness values from 1 to 10.
MOHS HARDNESS SCALE
Many experienced rock collectors carry a mineral testing kit on their rock-hunting trips to test hardness and other mineral characteristics. Knowing the hardness of a mineral will not always tell you its identity, but it will help rule out some possibilities. You can buy a mineral testing kit, but it’s more fun to make one yourself using materials you can find around the house or buy cheaply.
MATERIALS NEEDED
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Penny
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Small piece of glass
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Piece of unglazed tile
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File or pocket knife
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Small bottle of vinegar
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Eyedropper
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Rocks
HOW TO USE YOUR KIT
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Scratch the tile with your rock to determine the “streak” of the mineral. The streak is the color of the resulting powder. It’s usually a more consistent color than the apparent color of the mineral. You can refer to a mineral identification chart to find out what minerals have this streak.
-
Use the eyedropper to put a drop of vinegar on the mineral. If the vinegar fizzes, that means the mineral contains calcium carbonate.
-
Test the hardness of the mineral by trying to scratch it, in order, with your fingernail, the penny, and the file or knife. Then, try to scratch the file or knife and the glass with the mineral. Refer to the chart to determine the mineral’s hardness. For example, if you can scratch the mineral with your fingernail, it measures 1 or 2 on the scale. If the mineral can scratch the file or knife, it measures at least 7 on the scale.
HARDNESS TESTS
STREAK TEST FOR COLOR
LABELING
Record your findings in your connected worksheet
MINING AND MINERALS FIELD TRIP
Now that you've learned about minerals and how to mine them. Go on a field trip with your family! Below are some ideas:
Visit a mining or minerals exhibit at a museum.
-
While you're there find out about the history of the museum’s exhibit and the type of mining it
represents. Learn about how mineral resources have influenced history.
Visit an active mine.*
-
Find out about the tasks required to explore, plan, permit, mine, and process the resource mined at that site. Take photographs if allowed, and request brochures from your visit.
Visit a mining equipment manufacturer or supplier.*
-
Discuss the types of equipment produced or supplied there, and in what part of the mining process this equipment is used. Take photographs if allowed, and request brochures from your visit.
*Visiting a mine site, a mining equipment manufacturer, or an equipment supplier requires advance planning. These sites can be potentially dangerous. You will need permission from your parent and the manager of the mine site, or equipment manufacturer or supplier. While there, you will be required to follow closely the site manager’s instructions and comply with all safety rules and procedures, including wearing appropriate clothing, footwear, and personal safety equipment.
Looking to stay home and still visit? Below you can find virtual tours and other resources.
CREATE A FLOATION CELL
You can try the flotation method yourself!
MATERIALS NEEDED
-
Peanuts (yes! like the peanuts you eat)
-
Sand
-
Water
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Carbonated drink (soda, sparkling water, club soda)
-
Clear bottle or jar
INSTRUCTIONS
-
Throw some peanuts and sand into water, and both will sink.
-
If you mix the peanuts and sand and drop them into a glass of carbonated water (such as soda), you will see that the oily peanuts attach to the gas bubbles (the oil acts as a flotation agent) and float to the top, while the sand sinks to the bottom.
HISTORY OF A LOCAL MINE
Learn about the history of a local mine in your area. See the example below about coal mining in Massillon, OH.
Find out about the following:
-
What is or was mined there
-
How the deposit was found
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The mining techniques and processes used
-
How the mined resource is or was used.
Massillon, OH and Coal Mining
When fur traders and merchants moved into the Ohio territory in the mid-1700s, they discovered rich deposits of coal in the area that would later become Massillon. It was not until 100 years later that these deposits were utilized. As the country industrialized, the demand for coal grew. The Massillon coal vein, also known as the Sharon Seam, covers much of Stark County and runs into Tuscarawas, Holmes, Wayne, Medina and Summit Counties. It was found to be some of the highest quality coal in the Eastern United States, and was sought after for domestic and industrial use. Russell and Co., of Massillon and the Republic Steel Corporation made use of coal from the Massillon vein.
Approximately 2,000-4,000 men in the Massillon area
were employed in coal manufacturing at the industry’s
peak. Primarily of Scottish and Welsh descent, these
miners would have cut tons of coal from underground
mines and loaded it by hand onto carts to be shipped on
Ohio’s canal and railway systems. Animals such as mules,
horses, oxen, and goats hauled coal from the mines to
their shipping location. Miners and their families would
have lived near the mine, often in housing controlled by
the mining company. Miners were oftentimes paid in credits that could only be used at company-owned stores.
Take the suggested route to Carmacks to learn about the value of gold, US currency, and more or head back to the race course!
travel to carmacks
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Travel to Carmacks
Dawson City
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