Live off the Land

KALTAG

welcome to KALTAG

During the Alaskan Gold Rush (or sometimes called the Klondike Gold Rush or the Yukon Gold Rush) in 1884-85, steamboats travelled along the river carrying supplies for the gold miners. In 1900, there were 46 steamboats on the river. Measles and food shortages during 1900 reduced the population of the area by one-third. The village of Kaltag began after this when the people who were left in three nearby villages moved to the area.

By 1906, most of the people looking gold had left for Fairbanks or Nome. The Galena lead mines opened 1919. Kaltag was down the river from the mines and grew as a point on the transportation route for the mines. It declined in the 1940s as mining declined.

Population = 190

Kaltag serves as the Cyber Sled Race: Mine For Gold checkpoint Live off the Land! Below you will find information and challenges related to plant and animal identification as well as rocks and minerals.

The content below is for participants of all ages, unless otherwise noted. Utilize your connected worksheets and tracking tools to find the specific information for your rank.

EXPLORE MORE ABOUT living off the land

Lost on a desert island! Separated from your group in the middle of a jungle! Trapped on the side of a cliff that you can’t climb! What do you do? How can you survive? To survive in the wilderness, you need to learn survival skills long before you have to use them. This adventure will help you learn some of these important skills in case you ever get lost. Learning these skills will make you a better Scout and increase your chances of survival in an emergency.

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BIRD IDENTIFICATION

BIRDS

The best way to learn to identify birds is to venture outside and look and listen for them. If your counselor or someone else who knows birds can go with you, so much the better. If not, your task will be more difficult, but you can do it by yourself. First, borrow a pair of binoculars or field glasses. They will make bird watching much more fun and identification much easier. Next, learn something about bird families and where they usually are found. For example, if you wanted to see ducks, you would look at a body of water. If you wanted to see woodpeckers, you would look in trees. If you wanted to see meadowlarks or killdeers, you would look in fields or meadows. When just beginning to bird-watch, first try to place a bird in the correct family grouping. Determining the species will then be easier. Generally, the common birds you will see may be placed in one of the following groups.

Wading Birds. Herons, egrets, and bitterns are in this group of birds, which have long legs, long necks, and long, pointed bills. You usually see them wading in shallow water watching for small fish.

Waterfowl. Ducks and geese are in this group and usually are seen on or near water or marshes. Ducks are divided into two groups: those that feed by tipping up and dabbling in shallow water and those that dive for food.

Birds of Prey. Hawks, vultures, and eagles are in this group of generally large birds. They have hooked beaks and strong feet and feed on small animals such as mice and rats, amphibians, snakes, fish, and other birds. You usually see them soaring overhead or perched in a snag from which they watch for prey.

Grouse and Quail. These are birds that somewhat resemble chickens. Some are found in brushy areas, others in fields or prairies. Prairie chicken, ruffed grouse, spruce grouse, and sage hens are in this group. Quail are smaller than grouse and are easily distinguished from them. These birds usually are seen on the ground.

Shore Birds. This is a group of small wading birds found along streams, ponds, or the seashore. Some kinds live in fields and prairies. They have long, probing bills and probe for small water animals or grubs in the soil. Sandpipers, killdeer, snipe, and woodcock are in this group.

Gulls and Terns. These are long-winged, strong flying birds found near large bodies of freshwater or salt water. Gulls usually feed on the surface, while terns dive for their food. Herring gulls, ring-billed gulls, western gulls, California gulls, black terns, common terns, and least terns are probably the most common birds in this group.

Woodpeckers. Flickers, sapsuckers, and red-headed, downy, and red-bellied woodpeckers probably are the most common birds in this group. They usually are seen climbing tree trunks and probing the bark for insects. In flight, they flap several times then pause, which gives them an up-and-down sort of flight.

Flycatchers. These birds generally perch on bare twigs or power lines, once in a while flying off to catch an insect. While perched, they sit quite still, occasionally jerking their tails. King birds, phoebes, and flycatchers are the most common birds in this group.

Swallows. These are smallish birds with long, slender wings seen most often as they fly gracefully over fields or water, chasing insects. Tree swallows, barn swallows, and martins are members of this group.

Jays. In general, jays are birds of the woodlands, where their large size, long tails, and bluish or gray color help identify them. Bluejays and Florida jays are found in the East; magpies, California jays, and Steller’s jays are found in the West

Thrashers. This is a group of robin-sized birds with slender bills, which generally curve downward. They are seen on the ground or in low shrubs. Mockingbirds, catbirds, and thrashers are in this group.

Thrushes. This group includes the robin, bluebird, and thrush. With the exception of the bluebird, all generally are brownish on the back and have speckled breasts. They all are known for their beautiful songs and usually are seen feeding on the ground.

Warblers. These small, brightly colored, insecteating birds have fine bills and flitting habits. They are birds of the woodlands, usually seen at the tops of trees or at the tips of shrub branches. Some of them are myrtle warblers, Audubon’s warblers, yellow warblers, and black-and-white warblers.

Meadowlarks, Blackbirds, and Orioles. These birds are found in several wildlife communities: bobolinks, meadowlarks, and cowbirds in fields; orioles in high trees; grackles in marshes or woods; and redwings in marshes. Most of them are brightly colored, and all have distinctive songs.

Finches and Sparrows. Birds in this group all have strong, cone-shaped bills adapted for crushing or cracking seeds. They are found in almost all wildlife communities. Cardinals, grosbeaks, sparrows, towhees, and juncoes are in this group.

BIRD WATCHING

As you watch birds, find out as much as you can about them. Noticing the following things about a bird will help you recognize the species the next time you see it:

Its call
Its song
What it eats
How it flies
The trees or other plants it favors for perching and singing
Where it nests
Whether it walks or hops
Specific markings such as an eye stripe, wind bars, and coloration

The easiest way to learn bird songs is to watch a bird while it sings, so you can immediately associate sight with sound. Some birds, however, might be heard and not seen. You can get help from someone else or one of the recordings of bird calls listed at the end of this pamphlet. Learning about birds takes time. You will be surprised, however, that recognizing birds is quite easy and can become the basis of a lifelong hobby. There are more than 700 types of birds to be seen in the United States.

WATER

One of the best ways to attract birds to your backyard is to provide water. A simple, old-fashioned birdbath works well, as long as you keep it clean by scrubbing it every day or two with hot water and adding fresh water with a hose. You need only the bowl from a birdbath or a shallow plastic dish like those made to go under potted plants. Place the bowl directly on the ground near escape cover such as trees or bushes. Put a flat rock as big as your hand in the middle so that only an inch or so of water covers it. Some birds do not like to wade into deep water to bathe and can stand on the rock.

The sound of running or dripping water will attract birds from afar. Here’s an easy project. Fill a clean, plastic milk jug with water and hang it several feet above a birdbath bowl or plastic dish on the ground. Put a flat rock in the bowl, and fill the bowl with water. Unscrew the cap of the jug slightly to allow air inside. Make a tiny hole with a needle or pin in the bottom of the jug so the water drips very slowly into the basin

MAMMAL IDENTIFICATION

At first, identifying different wild mammals outside might seem difficult.

You might find rabbits, squirrels, chipmunks, or woodchucks rather easily, but

depending on where you live or camp, other mammals might be more difficult to

see. But if you start by looking for tracks or other signs, you will find that mammals

are much more common than you think. Look for the following signs.

Tracks in the mud or sand along waterways
Signs of feeding around fruit-bearing shrubs or trees
Rough bark around the hole in a hollow tree
Droppings on animal runways in woods and fields
Animal homes—holes in the ground, muskrat houses, or beaver dams

KINDS OF MAMMALS

In general, the mammals you are likely to see can be grouped as follows:

Pouched Mammals. The opossum is the only one in this country; they are different from other mammals because the females have a pouch in which to carry their young.
Moles and Shrews. Shrews are the smallest mammals—some only 2 inches long. They have pointed noses and short tails. They live in leaf litter on the forest floor or in tunnels under lawns and fields. They eat insects and sometimes snails. Moles have long, pointed noses, and their front legs are shorter than their back legs.
Bats. These are the only flying mammals in this country. (Flying squirrels can actually only glide.) Bats resemble mice with wings and have remarkable flight abilities. They nest in caves or hollow trees and feed on insects.
Flesh-Eating Mammals. This group includes some of the larger land mammals and most of the valuable furbearers. Bears, raccoons, martens, fishers, weasels, mink, otters, skunks, badgers, foxes, coyotes, wolves, bobcats, lynx, and panthers are included. Some of them eat plants, but all prefer to eat other animals and have canine teeth for tearing flesh. They live in many kinds of places; some are found in every kind of a wildlife community.
Rodents. These animals are the gnawing mammals—mice, rats, woodchucks, marmots, porcupines, beavers, muskrats, nutria, chipmunks, squirrels, and gophers. This is the largest group in terms of numbers and different species.
Rabbits. Found in most parts of the country, hares and rabbits live in hedgerows, thickets, tangles, or holes in the ground. They have long hind legs and long ears. They eat only plants.
Hoofed Animals. Deer, moose, elk, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, bison, antelope, and wild pigs are in this group. They have hoofed feet and teeth adapted for cutting grasses and leaves. In general, they are long-legged and among the larger mammals. They usually are found in wilder areas.
Water Mammals. Whales, seals, walruses, porpoises, and dolphins live in the oceans. They may resemble fish, but the young are born live and feed on milk. They breathe air and must surface frequently for a fresh supply.
Armadillos. These animals have a shelllike skin, a pointed nose, and rather long ears. They eat insects, insect larvae, worms, and some plants.

reptile and amphibian IDENTIFICATION

First things first, you should know what reptiles and amphibians are and how they differ from each other. Reptiles include snakes, lizards, turtles, alligators, and crocodiles. When they are born, these animals look like their parents. All of them are born on land and all have lungs. They all have scales, plates, or shells. Salamanders, frogs, toads, and newts are amphibians. All of these animals spend their early life in water or where it is quite moist. As they grow older, many of them change into entirely different looking animals. You may have seen tadpoles, which dart around in the water and somewhat resemble largeheaded fish. Later, they grow legs and develop into frogs or toads. They then live on land or in the water and on land. They are called amphibians because they spend part of the time in water and part on land. Some reptiles and amphibians are poisonous or can bite

with painful results, so find out which ones to avoid before venturing into their

habitat. Most amphibians are harmless, but some species of salamanders might

give a nasty bite, and some toads might have a highly toxic secretion.

Many reptiles are dangerous. There are four groups of venomous snakes, one

poisonous lizard, and at least two turtles that can inflict painful bites. There are

venomous snakes in nearly every state in the country. They are more abundant in some

states and areas than in others.

Gila monster: Found in parts of Nevada and Utah and down into Mexico

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Eastern diamondback rattlesnake: Found along the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida and west to Louisiana

Western diamondback rattlesnake:

Found in the southwestern United States, from Missouriand east Texas to southern California

Prairie rattlesnake: Found in the western half of the United States

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Sidewinder or horned rattlesnake: Found in the deserts of the Southwest

Coral snake: Found in some Southeastern states and in southern New Mexico and Arizona

Copperhead: Found in most Southern states, but also as far north as Massachusetts and as far
west as Illinois and Texas

Water moccasin (cottonmouth): Found in or near water from southeastern Virginia to Florida to east Texas and up through Arkansas and parts of nearby states

TIMING IS EVERYTHING

The best time to look for reptiles and amphibians is in spring, as they emerge from hibernation, seeking food and the warmth of the sun, and hunt for their mates. All of these things, plus the fact that vegetation has not started to grow, make them much more conspicuous than they are at other times of the year. Fall usually is the next best season to see reptiles. They seek sunshine for warmth again, and many gather near dens or burrows. Summer searching is

unpredictable. You might find turtles, water snakes, and many varieties of frogs during

hot weather, but most shun the heat and the sun. Others prowl only at night;

sometimes it is profitable to look for them with a flashlight after dark. In areas with

harsh winters, these animals hibernate during the cold weather and cannot be found.

TOAD AND FROG CALLS

Each species has a distinctive call. Some, like the spring peeper, have a high, piping

note. Others, like leopard, wood, and pickerel frogs, make a noise that sounds like a

snore or a grunt; the call of the green frog resembles a loose mandolin string; and the

bullfrog’s low “jug-o-rum” is well-known to almost everyone. In the spring, frogs and

toads sing day and night, but if you try to approach them in the daytime they will stop long before you reach them and you probably will never see them. They will dive out of sight or hide under vegetation. However, if you stalk them quietly at night, flashlight in hand, you may be able to watch them sing. Unless you can go out with your counselor or another expert, this is the best way to learn calls. Look for frogs and toads at night so you know which call belongs to which specimen.

Tip up and then replace all objects beneath which something might hide. Reptiles and amphibians seek shelter under boards, flat or loose rocks, cracks in cliffs and ledges, rock slabs, and boulders. Peeling the bark away from rotten logs also is good practice, and sometimes you can find specimens by tearing logs or stumps apart.The sudden light temporarily dazzles specimens uncovered in this way.

plant IDENTIFICATION

Identifying species of wild plants should be an easy task, wherever you live. If you can’t find them within your wildlife community, try looking along the edges. Try identifying the plants you see on your way to school, in the city park, in Scout camp, or even on a farm or in your backyard. First, though, you should know something of the five major groupings of the plant kingdom.

Slime Molds. These are the lowest form of plants and, as the name implies, they are the slimy mosses you find on wet rocks or rotten logs.
Leafless Plants. Plants in this group include bacteria, algae, and fungi (toadstools or mushrooms). Bacteria and fungi cannot make food from sunlight like other plants can because they lack chlorophyll. Instead, they depend on other plants and animals for nourishment. For example, mushrooms you see growing on a rotting tree draw nutrients from the tree. Most algae contain chlorophyll and process sunlight to make food.
Ferns. These plants have true roots, but do not have flowers or seeds.
Mosslike Plants. In this group are mosses and liverworts. Most mosses have leaves, while most liverworts do not. These plants have no true roots, nor do they have flowers or seeds.
Seed Plants. This group includes all the flowering plants, from grasses to shrubs and trees. They usually make seeds to reproduce, but sometimes they throw out runners. This might be the group that will interest you most because the plants in this group are easiest to identify

COLLECTING LEAVES

Collecting leaves is simple, if you remember three things: avoid poisonous plants; collect specimens as perfect (without insect holes) as you can; and be sure to collect the entire leaf. Some plants, like the hickories, sumacs, locusts, and ashes, have compound leaves. That is, each leaf has several leaflets. If you do not collect the entire leaf, the specimen might be misleading and your collection will not be satisfactory.

COLLECTING SEEDS

Seeds will be easiest to find from midsummer to late fall— from the time annual weeds start to produce seed to the time trees produce acorns, nuts, and other seeds. But if you look under pines or spruces in the winter you might find seeds that birds or mammals have spread as they break cones apart. You will certainly find cones, and it is easy to dry them out and get the seeds yourself. Seeds you collect can be stored in small plastic sandwich bags, plastic boxes, or bottles. Store larger seeds in boxes or jars. Write the name, date, and place of collection on a small piece of paper and paste it to the envelope, bottle, or jar.

POISONOUS PLANTS

Most plants are beautiful and harmless, and most animals are more afraid of you than you are of them. However, you should be aware of the poisonous plans and dangerous animals that you might see on the trail - even in a city park or neighborhood.

Here are the most common poisonous plants. If you touch them, your skin may get red and itchy. You can prevent a reaction by washing with soap and water as soon as possible.

Poison Ivy.

Poison ivy grows throughout most of the continental United States as either a shrub or a vine. Look for leaves with three leaflets and maybe white berries.

Poison Oak.

Poison oak grows as a low shrub in the eastern U.S. and as clumps or vines on the Pacific coast. Look for clusters of three leaves and possibly yellow-white berries.

Poison Sumac.

Poison sumac grows as a tall shrub or a small tree in wet areas in the northeastern, midwestern, and southeastern United States. Look for leaves with seven or more leaflets and possibly yellow-white berries.

To avoid poison ivy and poison oak, remember this rhyme: "Leaves of three, let it be; berries white, poisonous sight"

ROCK IDENTIFICATION

There are many kinds of rock and rock formations in this country. Let’s look at rocks according to the way they formed. There are three general groups of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. A rock is made up of one or more minerals. An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals of value, especially metals. The three rock types are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Geologic events determine where different rock formations are found that contain the minerals we value. How often geologic events happen determine how commonly or rarely a mineral occurs near Earth's surface. Some common minerals are mined at many locations. Others are so rare, they are mined in only a few places on Earth. If a mineral is mined only in foreign countries, then it must be imported into the United States.

ROCK TYPES

Igneous Rocks

Most of us have not actually seen a volcano erupting. But we know that when one does erupt, lava pours forth. Lava is molten rock—that is, rock that has been heated miles underground until it is liquid. As this lava pours out, the air cools it, and it hardens into igneous rock. One of the more common igneous rocks is granite, which forms beneath the Earth and is forced to the surface by the compression of land masses. Igneous rocks can contain many varieties of minerals, including quartz, feldspar, and a group of minerals containing iron and magnesium. Igneous rocks containing quartz and feldspar are usually light in weight and color, while those containing iron are heavier and darker.

Sedimentary Rocks

When bits of rock and soil are washed into an ocean or lake, they settle to the bottom, layer upon layer. Finally, by pressure from the water above, these layers of sediment become pressed together into solid rock. Sandstone is a type of sedimentary rock formed by this type of pressure on sand. Shale is a sedimentary rock formed when layers of clay are pressed into solid rock. Some sedimentary rocks contain shells from shellfish, skeletons of other water animals, and the remains of water plants. Limestone and chalk are sedimentary rocks formed from animal (shellfish) remains, while coal is sedimentary rock formed by pressure on plant remains. Sedimentary rock also forms when rock is dissolved in liquid, such as flowing water, and hardened again. Certain iron ores, flint, gypsum, and common salt are examples of sedimentary rock formed in this way.

Metamorphic Rocks

Pressure and heat are two of these forces that help to form metamorphic rock. After igneous rock is broken down and sedimentary rock is formed, heat and pressure can change them into metamorphic rock. Heat and pressure might change the texture of the original rock, or new minerals might be added or formed from chemicals extracted from existing rocks. In some cases, more than one of these processes occurs in the formation of the new rock. Granite is an igneous rock, but under heat and pressure it can change to a metamorphic rock called gneiss. Shale, a sedimentary rock, can change into slate. Sandstone, also a sedimentary rock, can change into quartzite. Limestone can change into marble.

SOIL PROFILES

The best way to find out about soil is to dig deep enough to see a soil profile—the arrangement of layers beneath the surface to a depth of 3 feet or more. Dig these profiles, look at a road cut, or cut away a bank to expose profiles in different places, and see if you can find different kinds of soil. For example, dig a profile in a wooded area and in an open field; in a hedgerow and in a field; in a cultivated field and in a pasture. Be sure to replace the soil once you have finished.

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WHAT ABOUT MINERALS

IMPORTANT MINERALS USED EVERY DAY

All three categories of minerals-metallic, energy, and industrial—are mined in the United States. Sand and gravel mines are the most common. Sand and gravel are used mostly as construction materials. Stone quarries are the next most common mine, followed by coal mines. The blue triangles on the map of U.S. mines represent a wide range of less common nonmetal rocks and minerals such as gypsum and clay. Metal mines are the least common type of mines in the United States.

Here is a review of some common minerals: sand, limestone, clay, coal, copper and gold:

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SAND

Sand is a simple material readily found all over the world. It is used in many

things you encounter every day, such as glass, concrete, playground

sandboxes, beach volleyball courts, and paint (to give walls a rough

surface texture). You probably know of more uses, but you might not think

of these.

The petroleum industry uses sand in the process of hydraulic fracturing
to improve oil and gas flow in its wells.
Highway departments spread sand on icy, snowy roads in winter to keep cars and trucks
from sliding.
Foundries cast metals such as iron and bronze in molds made of sand. The mold holds
the molten metal while it cools, giving shape to the engine block in your family car, for instance.

LIMESTONE

Limestone is a common sedimentary rock formed mostly from the shells of
marine organisms. Because oceans have covered much of Earth's surface,
limestone is abundant. It is made mostly of the mineral calcite (calcium
carbonate). Here are some everyday uses of limestone:

Limestone blocks of different shapes and sizes are cut for building stone,
countertops, flooring, monuments, and landscape rock.
Crushed limestone is used in concrete and as a base for roads and foundations.
Limestone is the main ingredient in making portland cement.
Limestone is pulverized into a fine powder for filler in paper, plastics, and paint.
Limestone is a soil conditioner, neutralizing acidic soils; a neutralizer in municipal water treatment, and a scrubbing agent, removing sulfur from smokestack emissions.
Limestone removes impurities in glass- and steelmaking; purifies sugar, and prepares wools and dyes.
Heated in large kilns, limestone becomes lime (Cao) for use in steelmaking; removing sulfur from smokestack emissions, water treatment, and construction. Pure calcite is produced with lime for use in paper, plastics, paint, toothpaste, food additives, antacids, and calcium supplements.

CLAY

Common clay is used to make bricks. Other types of clay are kaolin, bentonite, and

fuller's earth. The United States is one of the largest producers and exporters of these.

Kaolin is a white pigment used in papermaking, paint, rubber, plastics, and ceramics

such as sinks and toilets. Bentonite is sticky clay used mainly for muds in drilling for oil

and gas, and in landfill barriers protecting groundwater from toxins that may leak from landfills.

Because fuller's earth absorbs odors and fluids, it is commonly used in cat litter and spill kits.

COAL

Coal (an energy mineral) is a sedimentary rock formed from plant debris deposited in

swamps and bogs. Sediments covered the swamps and bogs over millions of years,

squeezing the plant material into a black solid (coal). Coal is classified into several kinds

based on its carbon content and density: peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite. From

lowest to highest—that is, from peat to anthracite—the ranking also indicates the level of

energy released when the coal is burned.

The United States has 25 percent of the known coal in the world. Discovered as the "burning rock," coal later provided the energy to power the industrial revolution over a century ago. Today it is used mostly for generating about 40 percent of the country's electric power. Coal is also burned in kilns to make bricks, cement, and lime. In making iron, coal serves as a fuel when converting the iron ore into iron metal; in steelmaking it serves as a fuel and as a source of carbon. Coal is important in papermaking and in chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Products containing coal or its byproducts include soap, aspirin. dyes, plastics, rayon, nylon, toothpaste, and cosmetics. Coal mining employs about 35 percent of all U.S. miners. Copper. The most noticeable thing about copper is its color: a rich reddish-orange. It is one of only a few metals with its own distinctive color. It was easy to find in ancient times because some of its many ores are green and blue. Copper was also found in its native metal state.

COPPER

Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat. It is ductile (easily drawn into wire): it is malleable (can be beaten into thin sheets), and it easily forms alloys or mixtures with other metals. Copper is widely used in electrical wiring. electronics, water pipes and tubing, and as gutters and roofing material.

Copper's main alloys are brass and bronze. Brass is an alloy of copper and

zinc: bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze is hard and tough and

typically used in statues, church bells, medals like those awarded in the

Olympics, and musical instruments such as cymbals. Brass resists corrosion

and has a bright yellow color, somewhat like gold. Common objects made

of brass include doorknobs, musical instruments like trombones and

trumpets, door keys, and plumbing fixtures such as faucets and showerheads.

Some of the largest mines in the world today are copper mines. The metal is in high demand because of its wide variety of uses, and the search for large deposits never ends. As civilization depends more on electricity and electronic technology, the demand for copper will continue.

GOLD

Gold is produced at about 50 hard rock mines from what are called lodes (ore
deposits), a few large placer mines in river deposits all in Alaska), and many smaller
placer mines (mostly in Alaska and the western United States). In addition, a small
amount of gold is recovered when mining silver and when processing metals such
as copper, lead, and zinc. The United States exports gold, and in 2012,
the country produced 230 metric tons of gold, ranking third after
China and Australia. More than 99 percent of the gold produced in
the United States comes from only 30 mines. Most U.S. gold
production is from large open-pit mines in Nevada.

Gold is used mostly in jewelry and the arts—these account for about 66 percent of gold production. Another 12 percent goes into dental fillings. Gold is a good conductor that does not corrode, making it reliable for electronics and other electrical uses—these account for 5 percent of gold production. The remaining 17 percent is used as bullion (gold bars) for investment, money, medicine, glassmaking, and awards and medallions.

Gold is so malleable that it can be pounded into extremely thin sheets called gold leaf. Used mainly for decoration, gold leaf adorns artwork, food (such as desserts), and even parts of buildings. The domes of several state capitols are covered with gold leaf Colorado and West Virginia are examples.

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WHAT IS GEOLOGY?

Geology is the study of the earth, including the materials it is made of,

the structure of those materials, and the processes that act on them. An

important part of geology is studying how the earth changes over time.

While the earth might not seem to change much, it is actually always

changing. Wind and rain wear down mountains, earthquakes shake the

ground, and volcanoes spew melted rock into the air. Even the

continents are moving. North America is actually moving to the west-

southwest about an inch a year!

A geologist is a scientist who studies the earth. Some geologists study how the earth was formed and how it changes. Other geologists study earthquakes and volcanoes and try to reduce the damage they cause by learning how to predict them. Still others work to improve our lives by using rocks and minerals to supply many of the things we use every day. Petroleum geologists study the earth’s natural resources of oil and gas. Engineering geologists and structural geologists work on building projects. Hydrogeologists work with our water resources. Environmental geologists study the effects we humans have on our planet Earth. What type of geologist would you like to be?

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USEFUL MINERALS

The Earth contains many useful minerals. Some, like silica (sand), are easy to see and collect. Others, like iron and zinc, are found in rocks. They must be removed from the rock by a process called smelting or refining. There are three categories of useful minerals: metals, nonmetallic minerals, and fuels.

CRYSTALS

A crystal is a group of atoms that come together in a certain way to form a molecule. Each kind of crystal has special and unique characteristics and shapes. For example, sugar crystals are oval-shaped and slanted at the ends, while salt crystals are in the shape of little cubes. Crystals can be used in many ways: for eating, like sugar and salt, or as jewelry! Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds are all different kinds of crystals, formed by different elements and atoms.

THE WEATHERING AND EROSION OF ROCKS

Weathering is what happens when rocks and minerals break apart because of water, ice, wind, heat, or cold. Erosion is what happens when the pieces caused by weathering are carried away. Weathering and erosion are important parts of geology.

Ice Erosion

Ice is another strong force that causes large amounts of physical erosion. In mountainous locations in the world, the rock and soil are commonly frozen together. Ice grows in the cracks of the rocks and pushes the rock particles apart. When the water melts and freezes again, it moves the particles away from each other and the process repeats itself. When water flows down a hillside, it can cause erosion similar to wrinkles in the soil. Glaciers, which are huge pieces of ice, move slowly down a mountain with the force of gravity. The weight of the glacier presses into the ground, forcing it apart and separating rocks. During the movement of glaciers, some of the ice also melts and refreezes as it moves, continuing to pick up rock pieces, dragging them across other rocks in the glacier’s path, and breaking them into even smaller pieces.

Wind Erosion

The movement of the wind erodes and creates different landforms. Wind is an invisible force that includes small pieces of rocks and minerals. This kind of erosion is not very strong because it takes a lot of energy to transport sand and dust. This type of erosion is known for smoothing the earth around us. Every time there is wind, the erosion impact can break off smaller pieces of larger rock. Sometimes the little rock pieces break into even smaller pieces. These smaller pieces can stay where the wind carries them until water washes them to another location, waiting for wind erosion to carry them away again.

Water Erosion

Have you ever noticed that rocks in riverbeds and on lake and ocean shores are small and smooth? That’s because of water erosion. Water causes a great deal of physical erosion. When rain falls heavily, flooding can happen, changing everything that the fast-moving waters carry with it. Rushing water can also cause mudslides. The force of the rushing water causes sharp edges of rocks to knock loose, which creates smoothness. Water erosion has caused geological landforms such as canyons and rivers. The Grand Canyon, which is a mile deep and 277 miles long, was formed by water erosion.

FOSSILS

You may find fossils while you are looking for rock specimens. A fossil is a trace of animal or plant life from millions of years ago that has hardened in rock. A fossil may be a print of a shell or the skeleton of a fish or bird. It may be a dinosaur’s track or a leaf or flower print. Would you believe that fossils from the sea can be found in a desert? It’s true! This means that the spot where they were found was once an ocean floor. Certain plants and animals live in hot climates, but their fossils have been found in cold countries. This means that these areas were not always cold.

Wind and water erosion have changed the earth’s landscape and helped to move fossils and other geological items over time. Fossils have even been discovered on top of mountains. Sedimentary rock usually contains fossils. Geologists study the rock layer in which the fossils were found. Then they can tell when the country was warm and for how long. Fossils show us what plants and trees lived millions of years ago and where. They show the changes that have happened through the years. You probably can find fossils in your own neighborhood. Look in diggings, road cuts, or stream banks— wherever cuts have been made through layers of sedimentary rock.

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CONNECTED CHALLENGES

The challenges below are for designed to allow you to explore more about plant, animal, and rock identification by doing hands-on activities. These are labeled by program area. To find which activities correlate with your advancement, check your connected tracking sheets located at St. Michael - Starting Line.

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES IN YOUR AREA

Identify on a road map of your state some geological features in your area.

Geological features are all around us. Mountains, plains, lakes, rivers, swamps, and caves are just some of the natural features that may be found near where you live. And there may be man-made features like dams, quarries, mines, canals, and channelized streams. Mark some of those features on a map of your area. Try to imagine what forces created them. Imagine going back in time to see how those features were created. While you’re exploring the past, see if you can discover how your area has changed over thousands and even millions of years. (A good place to start is a local science or natural history museum.)

You may discover things like this:

During the Devonian Period (408 million to 360 million years ago), a shallow sea covered much of eastern North America from New York through Kentucky to Texas.
The Colorado River has been forming the Grand Canyon for the past 17 million years.
During the Wisconsin Glacial Episode (85,000 to 11,000 years ago), glaciers covered Canada, New England, the Upper Midwest, and parts of Idaho, Montana, and Washington.
In the 20th century, the U.S. government built dams on many rivers to control flooding and generate hydroelectric power. One of the most famous, the Hoover Dam, impounds Lake Meade in Nevada and Arizona.

Print a Map of Your State to Label

GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS

Identify some of the geological building materials used in building your home our in building around your town.

Although your home may be made mostly of wood products, plenty of geological building materials went into it as well. The chart below shows some common geological materials used in construction. Can you add others?

Use your connected worksheet to write down materials and buildings that use geological materials.

Here are a few places to look for some types of rocks cities and towns:

Granite. This strong igneous rock is used often in city buildings. Look for it on the outside of buildings. It can be gray, pink, or a deeper rose color. It has a speckled pattern. The darkest flecks are mica crystals,
and the glasslike areas are quartz crystals. You can find both rough and polished
granite in buildings.
Sandstone. In eastern cities, many older homes called brownstones were built
of brick and then covered with brown sandstone blocks.
Slate. This metamorphic rock, changed by heat and pressure, was once clay. It can
be split into slabs. You might find an old sidewalk made of gray slate. Chalkboards
in schools used to be made of smooth black slate. Some roofs are made of slate.
Marble. Look for marble in the lobbies of office buildings and banks. A streaky,
swirling pattern of mixed color and a smooth, shiny surface will be the main clues.
Marble comes in many different colors. The main color might be black, gray, green,
pink, or white. You can find marble in museums and parks, too. Pure white marble
is often used for sculptures, statues, and monuments.

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take a 1-foot hike

Connected Worksheet

Take a 1-foot hike. Make a list of the living things you find on your 1- foot hike.

Pick an outdoor place close by. It could be a park or a grassy area at your school or library. It could even be your own backyard. You

won’t need a giant forest for this hike. You will, however, still need to be prepared. After all, you are a Cub Scout!

Be sure to bring along these tools:

a ruler
a pen or a pencil
a notebook
a piece of string that is 4 feet long or longer

If you or your family has a camera, bring that too. You might want to take photos of all the exciting things you find.

Before you set out on this adventure, check the weather. You might need to wear clothes that will keep you warm and dry, and you will want sunscreen to protect your skin. Now you can head out into the wild. Once you find the perfect spot, it is time to mark off a 1-foot jungle.

Make a square that is 1 foot long on each side.
Look closely at what is inside the square you just made. It might be small, but there is a whole world of activity happening in there. Do you see any of the items below?
Write down the things you find in your square. If you have a camera, you can take pictures too. You might be surprised by the number of neat things you find.

If you want to explore more, ask an adult to take you back to your square a few days later. Or you can even visit during a different season. You might just see something new!

BUGS

BABY INSECTS

ANIMAL FOOD

LITTER

AN INSECT/ANIMAL HOUSE

ANIMAL TRACKS

BIRD'S NEST

FLOWERS

BIRDS IN YOUR AREA

Connected Worksheet

Point out two different kinds of birds that live in your area. Find out more about one of these birds by researching it.

In this part of the adventure, you will be looking to the skies. With your family or den, take a walk in your neighborhood. Keep your eyes open, and look around for birds and birds’ nests. Take a notebook with you, and write down what you find.

Try to answer these questions:

What color is the bird?
How big is it?
If you find a nest, what does it look like?
What is it made out of?

Birds’ nests are like our houses. Birds make nests so they will have a

warm, safe place to hatch their eggs and raise their babies. The babies

stay in the nest while the parents fly around to get food for them. Do

you see any eggs or babies in the nest?

Some birds live in the same place all the time. Other birds live in

different places at different times of year. For example, they might

leave their homes before winter to find a warmer place. Then they return when winter is over. This is called migration. Some birds fly thousands of miles when they migrate! Ask your adult partner to help you find out about birds in your area.

Use the Bird Watcher's Digest Bird ID Guide to help you determine the types of birds visiting your backyard.

BIRDS MIGRATING

MILK CARTON BIRDHOUSE

A birdhouse will give the birds another place to go if their tree house is gone. You can buy a birdhouse kit from your local Scout shop, a craft store, or a hardware store. You can also make one from objects in your home. Even an old milk carton can become a birdhouse!

Here are directions for a milk-carton birdhouse:

MATERIALS

Empty milk carton
Glue
Masking tape
Scissors
Utility Knife
Twig
Paint
String or wire

DIRECTIONS

Clean and Dry the Milk Carton. Rinse the carton thoroughly and let dry completely. Keep the cap!
Paint the Carton Your Base Color. Screw the cap onto the carton. Then, in a well-ventilated area, place your milk carton on a drop cloth. Spray paint the carton with your base color of choice or just paint using a paint brush. Let it dry.
Cut a Door. First trace a circle approximately 2 inches in diameter in the center of one side of the carton; the bottom of the spray paint can is a great size to use as reference. Then, using a utility knife, cut out the circle to create a door.
Decorate the Bird House. Using craft paints, stickers or colorful paper and adhesive, decorate your bird house. Let it dry.
Insert a Perch. Approximately 1 inch below the door, cut a small X with the utility knife. Insert the twig into the X so that half is inside the carton and half is out. Hot glue around the twig to secure it in place.
Poke Holes in the Bottom. Using your utility knife, poke 8 small holes in the bottom of the milk carton to allow water to drain.
Add a String. Using the utility knife, cut a small hole at the top of the carton. Run a string through the hole for hanging the bird house.
OPTIONAL: Seal the Bird House. Using a clear sealer, spray a light coat over the entire bird house. This will make the bird house water resistant.
Hang the Bird House. Find a tree branch or other secure place to hang your bird house. You can enjoy it most if you find a place in clear view of your windows. Tie the string so that the bird house hangs at least 5 foot off the ground. To keep the bird house from blowing too much in the wind, anchor it with small rocks or pebbles in the bottom of the carton. Alternatively, you can make it a bird feeder by adding bird seed.

TAKE A HIKE

Go for a hike outside and discover signs or sounds of "nature" around you.

Just as birds use sounds to talk to each other, so do our other animal neighbors. Have you ever listened to them talk? How do squirrels talk? What about insects? What other sounds from nature can you hear in your jungle? If you live in the city, what are some other sounds of your city jungle?

Go outside for a short hike. Do not talk, just listen. If you close your eyes, can you hear sounds better? Write down in your connected worksheet what you hear. Mark which sounds are from nature and which sounds are not. Try going outside at different times of the day to hear different sounds. What sounds do you hear in the early morning? What sounds do you hear at night?

While on your outdoor adventure, use one of our HomeScouting Scavenger Hunts to see what you can find in the wild! Click on one of the Scavenger Hunt's below to download!

PLANT A PLANT

Be helpful to nature by planting a tree, shrub, or other plant outdoors. Learn more about the needs and growth of the item you have planted.

We all need a place to live. A monkey might live high up in the tree branches of a tropical jungle. The animals in your backyard jungle need shelter, too. We can help them by taking care of the trees and plants around us. Sometimes trees die, or get blown over, or must be removed. Then, the animals that lived there have to find new homes.

No plant or tree lives forever. Some die of old age, some get damaged by fire or lightning,

and some are cut down to be used for lumber or other purposes. You can help replace

lost plants or trees by planting new ones. If you’re lucky, you may someday walk beneath

the branches of a tree you planted!

A local nursery or garden center can help you select a plant or tree that will grow well in

your area. (You wouldn’t have much luck growing a palm tree in Minnesota or a Douglas

fir in Florida.) It helps to know how much sun the plant or tree will get and what type of

soil it will be planted in. Be sure to plant trees in places where they have plenty of room

to grow both up and out.

Here are some planting tips:

Carry seedlings in a bucket or box. Keep the roots damp.
Place trees at least 6 feet apart. Place plants at least 6 inches apart (but follow the instructions that come with each plant).
Dig a hole just deep enough to hold the roots. Loosen the sides and bottom of the hole so that tiny roots can push into the soil. The roots should not be stuffed into the hole.
A seedling should be planted so that its old ground line is about one-quarter inch below the new ground level. (The ground line is the dark mark on the trunk.) Plants should be planted at the same ground level.
A seedling or other plant should be planted with its trunk straight up. Fill the hole with soil so it is even with the ground. The soil should not be sunken in or mounded up above the ground.
Press the soil down firmly around the roots to prevent air pockets. If you don’t, the tree or plant may die because the air pockets dry out the roots, preventing water and nutrients from reaching them.
A newly planted seedling needs lots of water, so soak the soil around the seedling with water, and then soak it again if it is planted in the ground. If you’re planting in a pot, make sure the pot is large enough to allow the plant or tree to grow (at least double the size of the container the plant arrived in). Be sure there are holes in the bottom of the pot to allow excess water to drain and a saucer underneath to catch the water. Place a layer of pebbles in the bottom of the pot to prevent the soil from draining.
Closely follow the instructions for watering given on any tag or label that comes with the plant or tree. Each type of plant has different watering needs. Be sure to provide water and food as required on a regular basis.
Cover the ground around the base of a seedling with several inches of mulch—composted leaves, wood chips, grass cuttings, straw, or sawdust. This holds in moisture and helps make the soil richer for the new tree. The mulch should be flat or slope down from the trunk to the ground. Don’t make it look like a volcano.

Your plant or tree can help the environment in several ways. Flowering plants provide food for bees and hummingbirds. Fruit and nut trees provide food for wildlife (and people!). Shade trees help keep buildings cooler. Evergreen trees offer shelter from winter winds. All trees provide habitat for wildlife and purify the air by taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.

Learn more about how plants grow below!

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You can buy Arbor Day sticker packs at ArborDay.org!

make a plaster cast

Animal tracks can be preserved for later study if you make a plaster cast of them. To begin, mix some plaster of paris in a can of water until its texture resembles melted ice cream. Then form a strip of cardboard into a circle, secure with tape, and place it around the track. Gently pour the plaster inside the cardboard mold, allowing the mixture to flow into the track. Do not pour the plaster directly into the track.

The plaster will take about 20 to 30 minutes to harden. As it hardens, place a few

short sticks across the plaster, inside the cardboard, and pour a little more plaster

on top. The sticks will reinforce the plaster and keep it from breaking too easily.

When the plaster is hard, remove it from the mold and, using an old toothbrush or

stiff brush, carefully brush off the dirt or sand that sticks to it. This cast is known as

the negative, and with it you can make as many positive casts of that track as you

want. Next, decide what size of cast you want. Then make a wood frame that size.

To make the positive cast—that is, the cast that resembles the natural footprint—first coat the inside of the negative cast with petroleum jelly. Then lay the wood frame on a flat board and fill it with plaster of paris. Press the negative into the soft plaster and leave it there until the plaster is thoroughly hard. Then remove it from the mold, being careful not to crack the plaster. Before you forget it, write the name of the animal and the date on the flat top of the cast. If the dirt or sand is too dry to make plaster casts of animal tracks, use a long-handled spray gun to spray shellac over the track from 4 to 5 feet away. Be careful not to blow away the sand or dirt.The shellac will hold the dirt in place so that you can make a plaster print of it.

When working with plaster of paris, take care not to inhale the dust as you work. Also, wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water afterward.

leaf pressing

Pressing leaves with weight is the simplest method of saving fall leaves, but the leaves won't last as long as other preservation methods. For pressing, choose leaves that are flat and thin with a low moisture

content, and collect some of your heaviest books.

MATERIALS NEEDED

Leaves
Wax Paper or Newspapers
Heavy Books

DIRECTIONS

Prepare the Leaves: If you would like a more supple pressed leaf, soak the leaf in diluted fabric softener before pressing. Or you can coat the surface of the leaf with a light layer of petroleum jelly prior to pressing.
Sandwich the Leaves: Sandwich the leaves between sheets of wax paper or newspaper. Place the sandwiched leaves inside a heavy book. You can stack other books or heavy objects on top to add more weight, if necessary.
Cure the Leaves: Keep the book in a dry location. Check the pressing after about a week to make sure the leaves are drying and not rotting. You will probably need to press for at least two weeks before the leaves are completely dry.

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TRY USING AN IRON

Using wax paper to preserve leaves is a popular and simple method, and these leaves will last for several months. You'll need a clothes iron and ironing board for this method.

Prepare the Leaves: Choose thin leaves with a low moisture content—leaves that have already partly dried out will work well. Sandwich the leaves between two sheets of wax paper. Cover an ironing board with a rag so you don't get wax on the board, then place the sandwiched leaves on top of the rag. Place another rag on top of the sandwiched leaves.
Apply Heat: Heat the iron HIGH (do not use the steam setting). Slowly run the iron back and forth over the rag. Don't press too hard, or the leaves will shift. Once the wax paper has begun to seal, use the full weight of the iron and hold it for about 5 seconds on each part of the paper. Check to see whether the wax paper sheets have fully melted together and sealed the leaves. If they haven't, iron for slightly longer.

BUILD A NEST BOX

Many birds—among them bluebirds, wrens, tree swallows, titmice, chickadees, and some ducks, hawks, and owls—nest in holes in hollow trees, known as cavities. Unfortunately, nest cavities are hard to find in many areas or have been taken over by starlings and house sparrows. By building nest boxes with properly sized holes, you can increase the populations of native cavity-nesting birds. At the same time, you will exclude invasive species such as starlings and house sparrows.

BUILD AN EASTERN BLUEBIRD NEST BOX

MATERIALS NEEDED

Lumber: cypress, white cedar, hemlock, or local weather-resistant wood with low toxicity
- One 1x10x11” (roof)
- Four 1x6x10” (front, sides, and back)
- Two 1x6x4” (floor and inner roof)
- One 2x2x9” (pole-mounting block)
Exterior screws: twelve 1 5/8” (basic construction); two to six 1 1/4” (roof to inner roof); and two 2” (pole mounting block to back)
Caulk or sealant (sealing between top and inner roof)
One 2 1/2” galvanized nail (bent, latch nail)

DIRECTIONS

Hole saws were used for the xbox entrance and ventilation holes, as well as the mounting block. A table saw with its blade lowered was used for the drip kerfs on the underside of the roof and for the ladder kerfs on the inside of the front.
The back piece of the xbox is attached to the inner roof. Two deck screws (1 5/8”) are installed with an impact driver.
Test-fit the attached back, unattached sides and inner roof. Use a pencil to mark the placement of the recessed floor. Drive in screws.
Top of sides are attached to the inner roof above the entry hole.
Pivot screws, driven into the front piece from the bottom of both sides, allow the front to open easily for checking and cleaning.
One galvanized nail (2 1/2”) is bent to create the latch nail. Drill the latch nail hole slightly downward.

Box Placement

Eastern Bluebirds prefer forest clearings and semi-open country with scattered trees. Big yards, orchards, and cemeteries are good nest box sites. The preferred nesting habitats for Mountain Bluebirds consist of short grass areas interspersed by a few trees. Western Bluebirds can be found in woodland edges and open, park-like forests, including those that have been thinned or lightly logged. Space individual or paired bluebird nest boxes at least 300 feet apart or out of the line of sight from the nearest bluebird nest box.

If you place more than one box, space them at least 300 feet apart so that birds of the same species will not fight over territory. Where tree swallows or violet green swallows are common, place two boxes 10 to 30 feet apart, then 300 feet or more between the next pair of boxes. This may enable swallows and bluebirds to nest peaceably together.

Clean out boxes in late winter, removing old nesting materials, mouse nests, and other debris. During the nesting season, check the box weekly. Quickly open the hinged side, count the eggs or chicks without disturbing the nest or its residents, note anything unusual about the nest materials, and record the results in your field notebook. Then leave the area so the parents can return. Clean out the boxes after each nesting, and then inspect again in early spring prior to the nesting season. Most songbird eggs hatch two weeks after the last egg is laid, and the chicks are ready to leave the nest in 14 to 21 days. Do not disturb the box during the last four or five days of this period, or the young birds might leave before they are ready